{"id":2297,"date":"2018-02-28T14:04:55","date_gmt":"2018-02-28T14:04:55","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/guneydoguasyacalismalari.com\/?p=2297"},"modified":"2019-02-03T14:05:37","modified_gmt":"2019-02-03T14:05:37","slug":"hindistan-india","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/guneydoguasyacalismalari.com\/tr_tr\/hindistan-india\/","title":{"rendered":"Hindistan \/ India"},"content":{"rendered":"

Giri\u015f<\/strong><\/p>\n

D\u00fcnyan\u0131n kadim k\u00fclt\u00fcr ve medeniyetlerine ev sahipli\u011fi yapan Hindistan g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczdeki s\u0131n\u0131rlar\u0131n\u0131n aksine, tarihin erken devirlerinden itibaren s\u0131n\u0131rlar\u0131 bat\u0131da Pakistan\u2019dan ba\u015flay\u0131p do\u011fuda Banglade\u015f\u2019e kuzeyde Himalayalar\u2019dan g\u00fcneyde Sri Lanka\u2019ya kadar uzanan geni\u015f bir co\u011frafyaya tekab\u00fcl ediyordu. Bu nedenledir ki, bu devasa toprak par\u00e7as\u0131 bir k\u0131ta b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcnde kabul edilip \u2018Alt K\u0131ta\u2019 ad\u0131yla an\u0131l\u0131r.[1]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n

Bu \u00e7er\u00e7evede, Indus Nehri\u2019nin sulad\u0131\u011f\u0131 b\u00f6lge ile an\u0131lan ve erken d\u00f6nemlerde Hindistan (Hindustan<\/em>) ad\u0131 verilen bu topraklar\u0131n kuzey b\u00f6lgesine verilen isimdi. Bat\u0131da Kandahar,\u00a0 kuzeyde Badakistan ve Ke\u015fmir do\u011fuda Assam ve g\u00fcneyde de Dekkan ile \u00e7evrili bir b\u00f6lgeydi.[2]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n

Bir ba\u015fka deyi\u015fle, tarihsel s\u00fcre\u00e7ler ve co\u011frafi b\u00fct\u00fcnl\u00fck ve aidiyet noktas\u0131nda bu topraklar, bug\u00fcnk\u00fc Hindistan Cumhuriyeti s\u0131n\u0131rlar\u0131ndan ibaret de\u011fildi. Aksine, yine bug\u00fcn ulus devletler \u015feklinde tezah\u00fcr eden Pakistan, Banglade\u015f, Nepal, Bhutan\u2019\u0131n \u00fczerinde y\u00fckseldi\u011fi co\u011frafya ile Afganistan\u2019\u0131n g\u00fcneydo\u011fusu ve bir \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde Sri Lanka\u2019y\u0131 da (Ceylon<\/em>) i\u00e7ine al\u0131yordu. Bu geni\u015f co\u011frafya, b\u00f6lgenin kadim dili Sankrit\u00e7enin, Hinduizm ve k\u0131smen Budizm dininin yayg\u0131n bir \u015fekilde benimsenmesine ve uzant\u0131lar\u0131na konu olmakla birlikte, ayn\u0131 zamanda dil, dil ve k\u00fclt\u00fcrel ba\u011flamlarda b\u00fcy\u00fck bir \u00e7e\u015fitlili\u011fe ev sahipli\u011fi yap\u0131yordu. \u0130slamiyetin ortaya \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131\u011f\u0131 d\u00f6nemde ise, M\u00fcsl\u00fcmanlar taraf\u0131ndan Hindistan ad\u0131 verilen topraklar, Kirman, Sind, Hind, Multan, Kannawj gibi b\u00f6lgeleri de i\u00e7ine alacak \u015fekilde Kuzey Hindistan\u2019la s\u0131n\u0131rl\u0131yd\u0131.[3]<\/sup><\/a> \u00d6zellikle, ad\u0131n\u0131 \u0130ndus Nehri\u2019nden alan kuzeybat\u0131da Sind<\/em> b\u00f6lgesi, tarihin erken d\u00f6nemlerinden itibaren k\u00fclt\u00fcr ve medeniyetlere ev sahipli\u011fi yapt\u0131. G\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczde \u00fclkenin g\u00fcneyinde ve Sri Lanka\u2019da ya\u015fayan Dravidyenlerin, Aryanlar\u0131n M. \u00d6. 1500\u2019l\u00fc y\u0131llarda n\u00fcfuzu \u00fczerine g\u00f6\u00e7 etmek zorunda kalan topluluklard\u0131.[4]<\/a><\/p>\n

Sind b\u00f6lgesi, tarih boyunca bat\u0131da \u0130ran ve do\u011fuda \u00c7in aras\u0131nda deniz ve kara ipek yollar\u0131n\u0131n kesi\u015fme noktas\u0131 ve ana ula\u015f\u0131m noktalar\u0131 \u00fczerinde yer ald\u0131. S\u00f6z konusu bu b\u00f6lgenin bug\u00fcn de, uluslararas\u0131 siyasetin pop\u00fcler bir konusu olmas\u0131 tesad\u00fcf de\u011fil, aksine tarihsel s\u00fcreklili\u011fe yap\u0131lan atf\u0131n bir sonucudur. Tarihin erken d\u00f6nemlerinden itibaren Sind b\u00f6lgesinde de\u011fi\u015fik site devletleri ve imparatorluk boyutunda siyasi yap\u0131lar\u0131n ortaya \u00e7\u0131kmas\u0131nda, b\u00f6lgenin tar\u0131msal zenginli\u011fi, etnik yap\u0131lar\u0131n ve k\u00fclt\u00fcrlerin \u00e7e\u015fitlili\u011fi ile ticaret yollar\u0131 \u00fczerinde bulunmas\u0131n\u0131n \u00f6nemi yads\u0131namaz. \u00d6rne\u011fin Hindistan\u2019\u0131n di\u011fer b\u00f6lgelerinden alt\u0131n, \u0130ran\u2019dan g\u00fcm\u00fc\u015f gibi madenler \u0130ndus b\u00f6lgesine akarken, Hinduku\u015f da\u011flar\u0131n\u0131n zengin orman kaynaklar\u0131na ula\u015f\u0131m\u0131 s\u00f6z konusuydu. Ayr\u0131ca, Kambay K\u00f6rfezi\u2019ndeki liman yerle\u015fimlerinin Mezopotamya ile ticaret ba\u011flant\u0131s\u0131 bulunuyordu.[5]<\/a><\/p>\n

Bilinen en eski tarih\u00ee kay\u0131tlar dikkate al\u0131nd\u0131\u011f\u0131nda, Akdeniz ve Hindistan\u2019daki milletler aras\u0131nda M. \u00d6. 2000 \u00f6ncesine dayanan bir ticari ili\u015fkiden bahsedilir.[6]<\/sup><\/a> Uzun d\u00f6nemlere yay\u0131lan bu s\u00fcreci, Bat\u0131 tarihi referanslar\u0131yla bak\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131nda, Roma \u0130mparatorlu\u011fu \u00f6ncesi d\u00f6nemde Fenikeliler gibi Akdeniz uygarl\u0131klar\u0131yla, Hindistan ve \u00c7in aras\u0131nda do\u011fan etkile\u015fimler s\u00fcrecinden ba\u015flatmakta fayda var.[7]<\/a> S\u00f6z konusu ba\u011flant\u0131n\u0131n kurulmas\u0131nda Basra K\u00f6rfezi ve K\u0131z\u0131ldeniz \u00e7evresinin \u00f6nemli bir rol oynad\u0131\u011f\u0131na ku\u015fku yok. Bu ili\u015fkiler \u00e7er\u00e7evesinde, erken d\u00f6nemlerden itibaren Bat\u0131\u2019ya ta\u015f\u0131nan metalar aras\u0131nda k\u0131ymetli ta\u015flar\u0131, t\u00fcts\u00fcleri, baharatlar\u0131, k\u0131ymetli tekstil vs. bulunuyordu.[8]<\/sup><\/a> Bu \u00e7er\u00e7evede, uzun y\u00fczy\u0131llar boyunca Tak\u0131madalar\u2019\u0131n do\u011fusunda Moluku Adalar\u0131\u2019ndan ba\u015flay\u0131p t\u00fcm suyollar\u0131 g\u00fczerg\u00e2h\u0131n\u0131 takip ederek Venedik\u2019te son bulan baharat ticaretinde, bu devleti k\u00fcresel ekonomi ili\u015fkileriyle bu ili\u015fkilerin bi\u00e7imlendirdi\u011fi siyas\u00ee geli\u015fmeleri \u00f6nemli bir yere oturtur.[9]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n

Avrupa ile Hint Alt k\u0131tas\u0131 aras\u0131ndaki ili\u015fkiler sadece ticaretle s\u0131n\u0131rl\u0131 olmay\u0131p, aksine askeri boyutu da bulunuyordu. Bu \u00e7er\u00e7evede, \u00f6rne\u011fin, B\u00fcy\u00fck \u0130skender\u2019in b\u00f6lgeye ula\u015fmas\u0131ndan \u00f6nce, Hint b\u00f6lgesindeki topluluklar\u0131n bir b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcn\u00fcn Fars ordusu b\u00fcnyesinde Yunan topraklar\u0131nda sava\u015fm\u0131\u015ft\u0131 (M. \u00d6. 480). Bu \u00e7er\u00e7evede, Roma d\u00f6neminde (M. S. 1. y\u00fczy\u0131l) G\u00fcney Hindistan sahilleriyle ticaret ili\u015fkisinin b\u00f6lge tarihinde s\u00fcreklilik arz eden bir yap\u0131ya i\u015faret etti\u011fi s\u00f6ylenebilir.[10]<\/sup><\/a> Bu uzun ge\u00e7mi\u015fe ra\u011fmen, \u00f6zellikle 10. y\u00fczy\u0131ldan itibaren Hint Okyanusu giderek artan bir \u015fekilde k\u00fcresel ili\u015fkilerle an\u0131l\u0131r oldu.[11]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n

\u00d6te yandan, Hint Okyanusu\u2019nun do\u011fusunda geli\u015ftirilen ba\u011flant\u0131 da, ticaret kadar, \u00f6zellikle Budizm\u2019in geli\u015fmesine paralel olarak din\u00ee-k\u00fclt\u00fcrel yap\u0131la\u015fmalar \u00e7er\u00e7evesinde uzun d\u00f6nemlere konu olur. \u00c7in ve Hindistan aras\u0131ndaki ticar\u00ee ve k\u00fclt\u00fcrel etkile\u015fimin \u0130sa\u2019dan \u00f6nce ikinci y\u00fczy\u0131lda ba\u015flad\u0131\u011f\u0131na dair \u00c7in kaynaklar\u0131nda baz\u0131 verilere rastlan\u0131r. \u00c7inli t\u00fcccarlar\u0131n Malay d\u00fcnyas\u0131n\u0131 a\u015f\u0131p, Hindistan sahillerine ula\u015fmas\u0131 iki b\u00f6lge aras\u0131nda kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131kl\u0131 ili\u015fkilerin geli\u015ftirilmesi anlam\u0131 ta\u015f\u0131yordu.[12]<\/sup><\/a> Gerek Hint Alt K\u0131tas\u0131\u2019nda gerekse \u00c7in ve Hindistan aras\u0131ndaki ili\u015fkilerde ticari faaliyetlerin yan\u0131 s\u0131ra Budizm de \u00f6nemli rol oynad\u0131. Bu \u00e7er\u00e7evede \u00f6rne\u011fin, Tang Hanedanl\u0131\u011f\u0131 (627-649) d\u00f6neminde Hsuan Chuang adl\u0131 bir rahibin karayoluyla Hindistan\u2019a gitti\u011fi ve d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015fte denizyolunu kulland\u0131\u011f\u0131[13]<\/sup><\/a> ve \u00f6zellikle Budist rahipler taraf\u0131ndan ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirilen bu ve benzeri ziyaretlerin ilerleyen d\u00f6nemde de, \u00f6rne\u011fin 9. ve 10. y\u00fczy\u0131llarda da, iki \u00fclke aras\u0131nda s\u00fcreklilik arz etti\u011fi g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fcr.[14]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n

Hindistan topraklar\u0131 \u00fczerinde bir di\u011fer etkile\u015fim \u0130slamiyetin yay\u0131lmas\u0131yla birlikte ortaya \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131. Arabistan Yar\u0131madas\u0131 gibi kom\u015fu bir co\u011frafyada ne\u015fet eden \u0130slamiyet erken d\u00f6nemlerden itibaren Hindistan\u2019\u0131n kara ve deniz s\u0131n\u0131rlar\u0131 \u00fczerinden b\u00f6lge halklar\u0131na ula\u015ft\u0131. Emeviler d\u00f6neminde, 8. y\u00fczy\u0131l ba\u015flar\u0131nda Sind b\u00f6lgesine ula\u015fmas\u0131n\u0131n ard\u0131ndan y\u00f6neticiler ile geni\u015f Hindu-Budist toplumu aras\u0131nda belki de ilk defa ortaya \u00e7\u0131kan bir y\u00f6netim g\u00fcndeme geldi. M\u00fcsl\u00fcman y\u00f6neticiler taraf\u0131ndan Hindu-Budist halk ehli-kitap h\u00fckm\u00fcnde kabul edilmek ve bu anlamda kendilerine z\u0131mni stat\u00fcs\u00fc verilmek suretiyle \u0130slam siyasi tarihinde yeni bir anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131 g\u00fcndeme getirirken, bu yakla\u015f\u0131m\u0131n daha sonraki uzun y\u00fczy\u0131llar boyunca da benzer \u015fekilde s\u00fcrd\u00fcr\u00fcld\u00fc\u011f\u00fcne dikkat \u00e7ekilir.[15]<\/a> \u00c7e\u015fitli \u0130slam toplumlar\u0131n\u0131n erken d\u00f6nemlerden itibaren varl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n siyasi ve toplumsal kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131, uzun y\u00fczy\u0131llar\u0131 kapsayacak \u015fekilde geli\u015fme g\u00f6sterdi.<\/p>\n

    \n
  1. y\u00fczy\u0131l sonlar\u0131ndan itibaren b\u00f6lgenin tedrici bir \u015fekilde Bat\u0131 Avrupa s\u00f6m\u00fcrgeci milletlerinin n\u00fcfuzu alt\u0131na girerken, bu s\u00fcre\u00e7te \u0130ngilizlerin ticari, ekonomik ve siyasi yap\u0131la\u015fmas\u0131na konu oldu. Cenevizli denizcilerin destekleri ile Portekiz ve \u0130spanya krall\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131n deste\u011fiyle denizlerde h\u00fck\u00fcm s\u00fcren \u0130spanyol ve Portekiz t\u00fcccar ve denizcileri kar\u015f\u0131s\u0131nda Bat\u0131 Avrupa\u2019da Hollanda gibi, Ada \u00fclkesinde de inisiyatif geli\u015ftirilmeye ba\u015fland\u0131. \u00d6zellikle \u0130ngiliz Krall\u0131\u011f\u0131\u2019na ba\u011fl\u0131 denizci ve t\u00fcccarlar\u0131n, 17. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n ba\u015flar\u0131nda do\u011fu denizlerine a\u00e7\u0131lmas\u0131, \u00f6ncelikle Avrupa\u2019da bir s\u00fcredir ba\u015f g\u00f6steren ticari hayat\u0131n yeniden d\u00fczenlenmesini sa\u011flad\u0131. Bu s\u00fcre\u00e7 boyunca, \u0130ngilizler fiili olarak 2. D\u00fcnya Sava\u015f\u0131\u2019na kadar s\u00fcrecek ticari, teritoryal ve emperyalist egemenliklerini sergilediler. Bu s\u00fcre\u00e7te, ku\u015fkusuz ki d\u00f6nem noktalar\u0131ndan biri, \u0130ngiliz Do\u011fu Hint \u015eirketi ad\u0131yla kraliyetin destekledi\u011fi ve \u00f6nde gelen t\u00fcccar s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131n\u0131n ortak oldu\u011fu yap\u0131n\u0131n 1857 y\u0131l\u0131nda krall\u0131\u011fa devri oldu.[16]<\/sup><\/a><\/li>\n
  2. y\u00fczy\u0131l Hindistan\u2019da Bab\u00fcrl\u00fc h\u00fck\u00fcmdar\u0131 Alemgir\u2019in y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n ba\u015f\u0131nda vefat\u0131 (1707) ve \u0130ngilizlerin y\u00fczy\u0131l ortas\u0131nda Bengal\u2019den ba\u015flayarak b\u00f6lge ticaretinde s\u00f6z sahibi olmas\u0131na ra\u011fmen, 19. y\u00fczy\u0131l ba\u015flar\u0131na kadar siyasi bir egemenlik tesisi s\u00f6z konusu olmad\u0131.[17]<\/sup><\/a> Bu durumu, \u0130ngilizlerin siyasi veya askeri muktedirsizli\u011fine de\u011fil, aksine, t\u0131pk\u0131 Malay Yar\u0131madas\u0131 ve \u00e7evresinde oldu\u011fu \u00fczere, ticari d\u00fczeni tesis ve bu konuda \u00f6nc\u00fc rol\u00fc \u00fcstlenme fonksiyonu g\u00f6rme s\u00fcrecine konu\u015flanmalar\u0131 g\u00f6sterilebilir.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

    \u0130ngilizlerin Hindistan hakimiyetini, salt bug\u00fcnk\u00fc Hindistan Cumhuriyeti s\u0131n\u0131rlar\u0131na indirgemek m\u00fcmk\u00fcn de\u011fil. Aksine, ad\u0131na Alt K\u0131ta denilen ve birbirine biti\u015fik b\u00f6lgeleri i\u00e7in almas\u0131yla devasa bir co\u011frafyaya tekab\u00fcl ed\u011fr. Co\u011frafya diliyle ifade etmek gerekirse 8-37 kuzey enlemi ve 66-99 do\u011fu boylam\u0131 aras\u0131nda kalan, kuzeyde Himalayalar\u2019dan g\u00fcneyde Komorin Burnu\u2019na, bat\u0131da Afganistan ve Belucistan\u2019dan Burma\u2019ya kadar olan topraklar\u0131 kaps\u0131yordu. 20. y\u00fczy\u0131l \u015fartlar\u0131nda bu topraklar \u0130ngiltere Adalar\u0131\u2019n\u0131n on iki kat\u0131 b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcne, n\u00fcfusu ise alt\u0131 kat fazla bir co\u011frafi alana tekab\u00fcl etmekteydi. Bu geni\u015f topraklar\u0131n \u00f6zellikle bat\u0131da Indus, do\u011fuda Ganj nehirlerinin sulad\u0131\u011f\u0131 bereketli topraklardan has\u0131l olan \u00fcr\u00fcn ile sahil \u015feridindeki jeo-stratejik liman \u015fehirleri a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan de\u011ferlendirilmesi gerekir.[18]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n

    \u0130slamiyetin ula\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131 d\u00f6nem ve sonras\u0131nda siyasal yap\u0131<\/strong><\/p>\n

    \u0130slamiyetin Hint Alt K\u0131tas\u0131\u2019na ula\u015fmas\u0131, bu b\u00f6lgedeki kadim k\u00fclt\u00fcr ve medeniyetlerin yeni geli\u015fmekte olan bir k\u00fclt\u00fcr ve medeniyetle ili\u015fkisini ortaya koymas\u0131 ve tarihi s\u00fcre\u00e7te geli\u015fme g\u00f6stererek bug\u00fcne kadar ula\u015fmas\u0131nda \u00f6nemli bir noktaya tekab\u00fcl eder. Bununla birlikte, \u0130slam \u00f6ncesi d\u00f6nemde Arap denizci ve t\u00fcccarlar\u0131n\u0131n Hindistan\u2019\u0131n sahil b\u00f6lgeleriyle olan ba\u011flar\u0131 hat\u0131rland\u0131\u011f\u0131nda, \u0130slamiyetin yay\u0131lma s\u00fcreci tarihsel bir devaml\u0131l\u0131\u011fa tekab\u00fcl ediyordu.[19]<\/a><\/p>\n

    Erken d\u00f6nem \u0130slamiyetin kara b\u00f6lgesinde yay\u0131lma s\u00fcrecine konu oldu\u011fu ve bu \u00e7er\u00e7evede bug\u00fcn \u00fclkenin kuzeybat\u0131s\u0131nda Sind olarak adland\u0131r\u0131lan b\u00f6lgeden ula\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131 d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcl\u00fcrse de, \u0130slam \u00f6ncesi d\u00f6nemlerden Araplar\u0131n denizci ve ticaretle me\u015fgul bir millet olmalar\u0131ndan hareketle, \u015fu veya bu \u015fekilde uzun bat\u0131 sahili boyunca da n\u00fcfuzlar\u0131n\u0131n oldu\u011fu anla\u015f\u0131l\u0131r. Bununla birlikte, \u0130slam toplumlar\u0131n\u0131n sadece Arap milletinden ibaret olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131, aksine aralar\u0131nda Farsiler, T\u00fcrkler ve Afganl\u0131lar gibi b\u00f6lgede varl\u0131k s\u00fcren \u00e7e\u015fitli milletlerin de Hindistan \u00fczerinde etkilerinin oldu. Bu ba\u011flamda, erken d\u00f6nemlerden itibaren kurulan ve ba\u015f\u0131nda M\u00fcsl\u00fcmanlar\u0131n bulundu\u011fu hanedanl\u0131klar, sultanl\u0131klar ve imparatorluklar uzun y\u00fczy\u0131llar boyunca b\u00f6lgede hakimiyet kurdular. Bu s\u00fcreklilik, kendini hanedanl\u0131k aileleri \u015feklinde ortaya koydu\u011fu gibi, belki bundan \u00e7ok daha \u00f6nemlisi idari, k\u00fclt\u00fcrel ve bilimsel alanlarda kurumsalla\u015fm\u0131\u015f yap\u0131n\u0131n \u00f6nemli bir dinamizmini olu\u015fturuyordu.[20]<\/a><\/p>\n

    \u0130slamiyet Halife \u00d6mer d\u00f6nemindeki Sind k\u0131y\u0131lar\u0131na ula\u015f\u0131rken ve k\u0131sa bir s\u00fcre sonra, el-Walid ibn Abd\u00fclmalik (705-715) ve Muhammed ibn Kas\u0131m\u2019\u0131n giri\u015fimleriyle d\u00fczenli ordu ak\u0131nlar\u0131 Sind b\u00f6lgesi \u00fczerinde ger\u00e7ekle\u015fti.[21]<\/a> M\u00fcsl\u00fcman Araplar\u0131n bu fetih s\u00fcre\u00e7leriyle birlikte bir d\u00fcnya g\u00f6r\u00fc\u015f\u00fc olarak \u0130slamiyet ve bir dil olarak Arap\u00e7a da b\u00f6lgeye n\u00fcfuz etmeye ba\u015flad\u0131. M\u00fcsl\u00fcmanlar\u0131n Sind b\u00f6lgesindeki bu ilk evresi, 11. y\u00fczy\u0131lda Gaznevilerin b\u00f6lgeye gelmesine kadar devam etti. Bu ba\u011flamda, erken d\u00f6nem \u0130slamla\u015fma s\u00fcrecini iki d\u00f6nemde ele almak m\u00fcmk\u00fcnd\u00fcr. \u0130lki 9. y\u00fczy\u0131l ba\u015flar\u0131ndan itibaren Arap M\u00fcsl\u00fcman ak\u0131nlar\u0131n\u0131n, ki bu ba\u011flamda Emevi ve Abbasi y\u00f6netimlerini dikkate almak gerekir; ikincisi ise, 10. y\u00fczy\u0131lda Gaznelilerle ba\u015flayan s\u00fcre\u00e7tir.[22]<\/a><\/p>\n

    Arap M\u00fcsl\u00fcmanlar\u0131n ilk d\u00f6neme tekab\u00fcl eden teritoryal hakimiyetleri, ayn\u0131 zamanda Sind b\u00f6lgesinde dil ve k\u00fclt\u00fcrel yap\u0131la\u015fmalar ve toplum kesimleriyle do\u011frudan temas\u0131 ortaya \u00e7\u0131kard\u0131. Bu ba\u011flamda, M\u00fcsl\u00fcmanlar\u0131n b\u00f6lgenin dil ve k\u00fclt\u00fcrel \u00f6zelliklerini benimsemeleriyle do\u011fal bir sosyalle\u015fme s\u00fcrecine konu oldu. Sind b\u00f6lgesinin daha \u00f6nceki s\u00fcre\u00e7lerde sahip oldu\u011fu ticari merkez olma niteli\u011fi de i\u015flevsel k\u0131l\u0131narak ticari faaliyet geli\u015ftirilmesi yolunda ad\u0131mlar at\u0131ld\u0131. M\u00fcsl\u00fcmanlar\u0131n b\u00f6lgedeki Hindu-Budist kitlelerle bu do\u011fal toplumsal s\u00fcre\u00e7leri 9. y\u00fczy\u0131lda Kur\u2019an-\u0131 Kerim\u2019in yerel dile terc\u00fcmesinin yap\u0131lmas\u0131yla farkl\u0131 bir evreye ta\u015f\u0131nd\u0131.[23]<\/a><\/p>\n

    Bu durum, hi\u00e7 ku\u015fku yok ki, \u0130slamiyeti b\u00f6lge halk\u0131na tan\u0131tma konusunda \u00f6nemli bir ad\u0131m olarak an\u0131lmay\u0131 hak etmektedir. Bu s\u00fcre\u00e7te, M\u00fcsl\u00fcmanlar\u0131n Sind b\u00f6lgesindeki halkla sosyalle\u015fme s\u00fcrecinin bir di\u011fer y\u00f6n\u00fcn\u00fc ise b\u00f6lgenin kadim bilgi geleneklerinin Arap\u00e7aya aktar\u0131lmas\u0131, t\u0131p konusundaki bilgi ve tecr\u00fcbe sahiplerinin Ba\u011fdat\u2019taki halifeyi tedavi edecek boyutta kabullenilmesine i\u015faret etmek gerekir. Bu d\u00f6nemde, Sind b\u00f6lgesinde g\u00fcven ve istikrar\u0131n sa\u011flanmas\u0131 \u00f6nemli bir y\u00f6netim ba\u015far\u0131s\u0131 olarak kendini ortaya koyarken, baz\u0131 Budist tap\u0131naklar\u0131n\u0131n restorasyonunun M\u00fcsl\u00fcman y\u00f6neticilerin b\u00f6lge halk\u0131yla ili\u015fkilerinin boyutunu ortaya koymaktad\u0131r.[24]<\/a><\/p>\n

    M\u00fcsl\u00fcmanlar\u0131n bu co\u011frafyada kal\u0131c\u0131 olarak hakimiyetleri, Gazneli Seb\u00fcktekin\u2019in Hindistan yolunu T\u00fcrk hanedanlar\u0131na a\u00e7mas\u0131yla ger\u00e7ekle\u015fti. Seb\u00fcktekin yirmi y\u0131ll\u0131k h\u00fck\u00fcmdarl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n ard\u0131ndan 997 y\u0131l\u0131nda vefat\u0131 \u00fczerine yerine o\u011flu Mahmut ge\u00e7ti. \u2018Gazneli\u2019 unvan\u0131yla an\u0131lan Mahmut 1000 il\u00e2 1026 y\u0131llar\u0131 aras\u0131nda h\u00fck\u00fcm s\u00fcrerken, \u00fclkenin i\u00e7 b\u00f6lgelerine do\u011fru yedi b\u00fcy\u00fck sefer ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirdi.[25]<\/a> Bu d\u00f6nemde Sind b\u00f6lgesindeki \u00e7e\u015fitli h\u00fck\u00fcmdarlarla ittifaklar kurulurken, \u00f6zellikle yap\u0131lan anla\u015fmalara sad\u0131k kalmayanlar \u00fczerine g\u00f6nderilen ordularla yeni topraklar \u00fczerinde hakimiyet kuruldu. Bunlar aras\u0131nda d\u00f6nemin en \u00f6nemli \u015fehri kabul edilen Kanouj al\u0131n\u0131rken, 1022 ve 1023 y\u0131llar\u0131nda benzer bir nedenle Indus nehrinin \u00f6te yakas\u0131ndaki Lahor ve ard\u0131ndan 1024\u2019de ise Bat\u0131 Hindistan sahilindeki en \u00f6nemli b\u00f6lgelerden kabul edilen G\u00fccerat\u2019\u0131n Somnath \u015fehri ele ge\u00e7irildi.[26]<\/a><\/p>\n

      \n
    1. y\u00fczy\u0131l ikinci yar\u0131s\u0131nda ise Gurlular ad\u0131 verilen hanedanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n Gazneliler kar\u015f\u0131s\u0131nda \u00fcst\u00fcnl\u00fck sa\u011flamas\u0131, sadece bir y\u00f6netim de\u011fi\u015fikli\u011fi ve akabinde Delhi devletinin kurulu\u015fu (1206) de\u011fil, ayn\u0131 zamanda \u0130slamiyetin farkl\u0131 b\u00f6lgelere yay\u0131lmas\u0131 anlam\u0131 ta\u015f\u0131yordu. \u00d6yle ki, M\u00fcsl\u00fcman-Hint toplumunun olu\u015fmas\u0131n\u0131n Gurlular d\u00f6nemiyle birlikte ortaya \u00e7\u0131kmaya ba\u015flad\u0131\u011f\u0131 belirtilir.<\/li>\n
    2. y\u00fczy\u0131l ba\u015flar\u0131nda Delhi Sultanl\u0131\u011f\u0131\u2019n\u0131n kurulu\u015funda (1206-1526) M\u00fcsl\u00fcman T\u00fcrk ve Afgan unsurlar\u0131n\u0131n Sind b\u00f6lgesi \u00fczerindeki varl\u0131\u011f\u0131 belirleyicidir.[27]<\/sup><\/a> Devletin kurucusu olarak da an\u0131lan \u015eemseddin \u0130ltutmu\u015f, 1229 y\u0131l\u0131nda d\u00f6nemin Abbasi halifesinden \u2018hil\u2019at<\/em>\u2019 almas\u0131 siyasi ve dini me\u015fruiyetini olu\u015fturdu. Bu s\u00fcre\u00e7te s\u0131ras\u0131yla Guri, Memluk, Halji (Khalji) ve Tu\u011fluk vb. hanedanl\u0131klar, Delhi Sultanl\u0131\u011f\u0131\u2019nda y\u00f6netim s\u00fcre\u00e7lerini ortaya koymas\u0131 bak\u0131m\u0131ndan \u00f6nemlidir.[28]<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

      \u00dc\u00e7 y\u00fcz y\u0131l\u0131 a\u015fk\u0131n bir s\u00fcre h\u00fck\u00fcm s\u00fcren Delhi devletinin farkl\u0131 hanedanl\u0131klar taraf\u0131ndan y\u00f6netilmesinde ku\u015fkusuz ki ya\u015fanan taht kavgalar\u0131n\u0131n \u00f6nemli bir pay\u0131 vard\u0131r. Bu ba\u011flamda, \u015eemseddin \u0130ltutmu\u015f h\u00fck\u00fcmdarl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n s\u00fcrd\u00fc\u011f\u00fc (1210-1236) 13. y\u00fczy\u0131lda T\u00fcrk k\u00f6kenli Meml\u00fck ordusu, Khalajis (1290-1320) ile Giyaseddin Tu\u011fluk\u2019un tahtta s\u00f6z sahibi olmas\u0131yla Tu\u011fluklar (1320-1414) gibi T\u00fcrk-Mo\u011fol k\u00f6kenli hanedanl\u0131klar Sind b\u00f6lgesinde hakimiyet sergilediler.[29]<\/a> Timur\u2019un y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n sonlar\u0131nda (1398) b\u00f6lgeyi istilas\u0131 \u00fczerine hakimiyetini yitirmesiyle Tu\u011fluklar\u0131n yerini Seyyidler d\u00f6nemi ald\u0131 (1414-1451). Bunun ard\u0131ndan, 1451\u2019de tahta \u00e7\u0131kan bir Afgan beyi olan Bahlul Lodi\u2019nin kurdu\u011fu Ludi (Lodi) hanedanl\u0131\u011f\u0131 y\u00f6netimde hakim oldu. \u00d6nceki s\u00fcre\u00e7lere benzer \u015fekilde taht kavgalar\u0131 ve geni\u015fleyen topraklar \u00fczerindeki hakimiyetin sa\u011flanmas\u0131ndaki zorluklar gibi sorunlar 1526 y\u0131l\u0131nda Delhi devletinin sonunu getirdi.[30]<\/a><\/p>\n

      Delhi Sultanl\u0131\u011f\u0131, yukar\u0131da k\u0131saca dikkat \u00e7ekildi\u011fi \u00fczere, \u00e7e\u015fitli hanedanl\u0131k m\u00fccadeleleriyle an\u0131l\u0131rken, Hindistan topraklar\u0131n\u0131n kuzey ve orta b\u00f6lgelerinde Fars, T\u00fcrk, Arap \u0130slam k\u00fclt\u00fcr ve medeniyetinin unsurlar\u0131 ile yerli de\u011ferlerin birle\u015fimine konu oldu. Bu uzun s\u00fcre\u00e7te, \u015fehirle\u015fme, sanat, tar\u0131m gibi alanlarda ya\u015fayan geli\u015fme, b\u00f6lgenin tarihin erken devirlerinden itibaren, \u00f6zellikle Sind b\u00f6lgesinin verimli topraklar\u0131 \u00fczerinde y\u00fckselen devletlerinin ve k\u00fclt\u00fcrel birikimin devam\u0131d\u0131r.[31]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n

      \u00d6zellikle de Firuz \u015eah Tu\u011fluk d\u00f6neminde (1351-1388) alt yap\u0131 \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131 ve yeni \u015fehirler kurulmas\u0131yla \u00f6nemli bir geli\u015fme sa\u011fland\u0131. Firuz \u015eah\u2019\u0131n vefat\u0131 devlette iktidar g\u00fcc\u00fcn\u00fc sarsarken, 1398\u2019deki Mo\u011fol sald\u0131r\u0131 istikrars\u0131zl\u0131\u011f\u0131 k\u00f6r\u00fckleyen bir ba\u015fka unsur olarak ortaya \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131.[32]<\/a> Bu s\u00fcre\u00e7te, Bahlul Lodi\u2019nin halefi Sikandar Lodi (1489-1517) ise Agra\u2019y\u0131 1504 y\u0131l\u0131nda ba\u015fkent yapt\u0131.[33]<\/a> Sikandar\u2019\u0131n \u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fc \u00fczerine gen\u00e7 o\u011flu tahta \u00e7\u0131ksa da, ba\u015fta amcas\u0131 Devlet Han olmak \u00fczere Afgan soylular\u0131yla ge\u00e7inememesi bir anlamda Dehli\u2019nin sonunu getirirken, Kabul\u2019\u00fcn Mughal y\u00f6neticisi Bab\u00fcr Hindistan\u2019a davet edilmesi b\u00f6lgede yeni bir devletin varl\u0131\u011f\u0131na i\u015faret eder.[34]<\/a><\/p>\n

      Bab\u00fcrl\u00fclere ge\u00e7meden \u00f6nce \u015fu hususa da dikkat \u00e7ekmekte fayda var. Bu g\u00f6rece erken d\u00f6nemde, Hint topraklar\u0131nda h\u00fck\u00fcm s\u00fcrm\u00fc\u015f k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck site devletleri \u015feklinde siyasi yap\u0131lar da ortaya \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131. \u00d6rne\u011fin, Delhi\u2019nin g\u00fcneyinde Dekkan\u2019da Delhi\u2019den ayr\u0131lan bir grup Behmeni Sultanl\u0131\u011f\u0131\u2019n\u0131 (1347-1481) kurdu. Behmenilerin \u00e7\u00f6k\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcn ard\u0131ndan Bengal, Ke\u015fmir, G\u00fccerat, Cavnpur, Malva Sultanl\u0131klar\u0131 b\u00f6lgesel site devlet yap\u0131la\u015fmalar\u0131n\u0131 hat\u0131rlatmak m\u00fcmk\u00fcn.[35]<\/a><\/p>\n

      G\u00f6\u00e7ler ve Ticaret<\/strong><\/p>\n

      \u00a0<\/strong>B\u00f6lgede bu erken d\u00f6nemlerde geli\u015fme g\u00f6steren T\u00fcrk-\u0130slam devletlerinin ortaya \u00e7\u0131kmas\u0131 Orta Asya\u2019da ya\u015fanan s\u00fcre\u00e7lerden ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131z ele al\u0131namaz. Bu \u00e7er\u00e7evede, \u00f6zellikle 13. y\u00fczy\u0131l ba\u015flar\u0131nda Cengiz\u2019in ba\u015f\u0131nda bulundu\u011fu Mo\u011follar\u0131n ak\u0131nlar\u0131 nedeniyle Orta Asya\u2019dan yeni g\u00f6\u00e7 dalgalar\u0131n\u0131n \u00f6ne \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131\u011f\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fcr. Bu s\u00fcre\u00e7, siyasi yap\u0131lanmalar\u0131n yan\u0131 s\u0131ra Horasan b\u00f6lgesinden ger\u00e7ekle\u015fen g\u00f6\u00e7ler \u0130slami bilimlerin \u00e7e\u015fitli alanlar\u0131na mensup alimlerin ve entellekt\u00fcellerin Sind b\u00f6lgesine yerle\u015fmesine yol a\u00e7t\u0131. Bu d\u00f6nem, b\u00f6lgedeki saraylar ve medreseler b\u00f6lgeye gelen alimleri ve entellekt\u00fcellerin ilmi ve edebi faaliyetlerine konu oldu.[36]<\/a><\/p>\n

      Bu s\u00fcre\u00e7te bir ba\u015fka dikkat \u00e7ekilmesi gereken husus b\u00f6lgenin ticaret yollar\u0131n\u0131n kesi\u015fim noktalar\u0131na ev sahipli\u011fi yapmas\u0131d\u0131r. Bu \u00e7er\u00e7evede, yukar\u0131da zikredilen T\u00fcrk ve Afgan k\u00f6kenli unsurlar\u0131n Sind b\u00f6lgesinde varl\u0131k g\u00f6stermeleri, buran\u0131n geni\u015f Horasan topraklar\u0131yla Hindistan\u2019\u0131n di\u011fer b\u00f6lgeleri aras\u0131nda ge\u00e7i\u015f noktas\u0131 olmas\u0131 ve Orta Asya ile Kuzey Hindistan aras\u0131ndaki kadim ticaret yolu \u00fczerinde bulunmas\u0131 nedeniyle, bir anlamda teritoryal a\u011f\u0131n do\u011fal bir uzant\u0131s\u0131ndan kaynaklan\u0131r.[37]<\/a> Bu durum, yukar\u0131da zikredilen farkl\u0131 milletlere mensup M\u00fcsl\u00fcman topluluklar\u0131n b\u00f6lgedeki mobilizasyonuna ve uzun d\u00f6nemli hakimiyetlerinin de arka pl\u00e2n\u0131n\u0131 olu\u015fturur.<\/p>\n

      Bu g\u00f6\u00e7 s\u00fcre\u00e7leriyle birlikte, Hindistan\u2019\u0131n di\u011fer b\u00f6lgelerinde oldu\u011fu gibi Sind b\u00f6lgesinde de geleneksel ve kadim soylu aileleri, yani b\u00f6lgede Raja<\/em> olarak adland\u0131r\u0131lan soylular\u0131n hakimiyetindeki siyasi g\u00fc\u00e7 yap\u0131lar\u0131 h\u00fck\u00fcm s\u00fcr\u00fcyordu. Mughal hakimiyetinin peki\u015fmesinde bu soylu aileler etraf\u0131nda kurulu g\u00f6rece k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck, ancak k\u00f6kl\u00fc bir ge\u00e7mi\u015fe sahip ve b\u00f6lgelerinde hakimiyet tesis eden siyasi yap\u0131lanmalar\u0131n merkeze, yani imparatora ba\u011flanmas\u0131 \u00f6nemli bir i\u015flev g\u00f6rd\u00fc. Bu s\u00fcre\u00e7te, Mughal\u2019lar\u0131n bir imparatorluk haline gelmesinde, bu racal\u0131klarla yap\u0131lan anla\u015fmalarla kurulan ittifaklar ve bunlar aras\u0131nda bir denge kurulmas\u0131na olanak tan\u0131yordu.[38]<\/a><\/p>\n

      Bu ba\u011flamda, T\u00fcrklerin Haber ge\u00e7idini kullanarak Sind b\u00f6lgesine ula\u015fmas\u0131 bir tesad\u00fcf de\u011fil, aksine kadim d\u00f6nemlerden bu yana Fars-Orta Asya-Kuzey Hindistan aras\u0131ndaki kara ticari faaliyetlerinin merkezi noktas\u0131 olmas\u0131yla ba\u011flant\u0131l\u0131d\u0131r. \u00d6yle ki, erken d\u00f6nem \u0130slamla\u015fma evresinden, 19. y\u00fczy\u0131l ortalar\u0131na kadar ge\u00e7en uzun s\u00fcre\u00e7 boyunca M\u00fcsl\u00fcman-T\u00fcrk hanedanl\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131n neredeyse benzer b\u00f6lgelerde h\u00fck\u00fcm s\u00fcrmeleri b\u00f6lgenin ticari bir organ vasf\u0131n\u0131 ta\u015f\u0131mas\u0131 ve tar\u0131m ve hayvanc\u0131l\u0131k faaliyetleri gibi zengin bir hinterland\u0131 i\u00e7inde bar\u0131nd\u0131rmas\u0131ndan kaynaklan\u0131r.[39]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n

      Yukar\u0131da zikredilen s\u00fcre\u00e7ler \u00e7er\u00e7evesinde, \u0130slamiyetin b\u00f6lgede yay\u0131lmas\u0131nda, b\u00f6lge halklar\u0131n\u0131n bu yeni dine bak\u0131\u015f ve tepkilerine de de\u011finmek gerekir. \u00d6yle ki, \u0130slamiyetin b\u00f6lgede yay\u0131lmas\u0131nda hi\u00e7 ku\u015fku yok ki, bu yeni dinin b\u00f6lgenin toplumsal yap\u0131la\u015fmas\u0131nda \u00f6nemli rol oynayan kast sisteminin etkisinden s\u00f6z edilebilir. Toplumu, do\u011fa\u00fcst\u00fc belirlenimcilikle ayr\u0131\u015ft\u0131rmak suretiyle toplumsal, siyasal ve sosyal ili\u015fkileri \u015fekillendiren kast sistemine mensup, \u00f6zellikle alt s\u0131n\u0131flara mensup gruplar i\u00e7in \u0130slamiyetin evrensel insan anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131 bir cazibe merkeziydi.[40]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n

      \u0130slamiyetin b\u00f6lgede siyasi bir g\u00fc\u00e7 ve demografik yap\u0131da ortaya \u00e7\u0131kard\u0131\u011f\u0131 de\u011fi\u015fimlere ra\u011fmen, bu co\u011frafyan\u0131n asli dini ve toplumsal yap\u0131s\u0131 olan Hindulara y\u00f6nelik serbestlik politikas\u0131n\u0131n izlendi\u011fini s\u00f6ylemek m\u00fcmk\u00fcn. \u00d6rne\u011fin, Sing b\u00f6lgesi 12. y\u00fczy\u0131ldan itibaren M\u00fcsl\u00fcmanlar\u0131n hakimiyetine ge\u00e7mesine ra\u011fmen bu b\u00f6lge sahillerinde \u0130ran K\u00f6rfezi, Arap Denizi\u2019nde ticari faaliyetleri y\u00fcr\u00fcten Hindular (banias<\/em>)\u00a0 ticaret ve finans alan\u0131ndaki egemenliklerini s\u00fcrd\u00fcrm\u00fc\u015flerdir. Benzer \u015fekilde M\u00fcsl\u00fcman olmayan gruplar vergi toplama uygulamalar\u0131nda da kendilerine g\u00f6rev verilen kitle olarak dikkat \u00e7ekmektedir.[41]<\/a><\/p>\n

      Bab\u00fcrl\u00fcler (1526-1857)<\/strong><\/p>\n

      Bab\u00fcrl\u00fcler veya yayg\u0131n ad\u0131yla bilindi\u011fi \u00fczere Mughal devleti<\/em>, Zahir\u00fcddin Muhammed Bab\u00fcr\u2019\u00fcn 1526 y\u0131l\u0131nda Lodiler y\u00f6netimine isyan\u0131 sonunda kuzey Hindistan\u2019da kuruldu.[42]<\/sup><\/a> Bununla birlikte, devletin as\u0131l kurucusu Bab\u00fcr\u2019\u00fcn torunu Ekber \u015eah kabul edilir. Ekber \u015eah, soylular \u00fczerinde hakimiyet tesis eden, y\u00f6netim ve ordu \u00f6rg\u00fctlenmesini ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftiren muktedir bir h\u00fck\u00fcmdar bilinir.[43]<\/sup><\/a> Ekber\u2019in ard\u0131ndan yerine ge\u00e7en o\u011flu Cihangir zaman\u0131nda (1605-1627) devletin s\u0131n\u0131rlar\u0131 kuzeyde Kandahar ve Ke\u015fmir\u2019i, bat\u0131da G\u00fccerat ve Sind\u2019i do\u011fuda ise Bengal\u2019i i\u00e7ine alacak \u015fekilde geni\u015fledi. Cihangir\u2019in ard\u0131ndan \u015eah Cihan (1627-1658) tahtta \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131. 1658 y\u0131l\u0131nda hastal\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u00fczerine d\u00f6rt o\u011flu taht kavgas\u0131na giri\u015fti.[44]<\/a><\/p>\n

      Devletin merkezi olan Ta\u00e7-Mahal gibi abidevi bir yap\u0131yla \u00fcnl\u00fc olan Cunna Nehri \u00fczerindeki Agra \u015fehridir. Bu \u015fehir, tarih boyunca i\u00e7 ticaret ve savunma merkezlerinin bulu\u015ftu\u011fu yerdir. M\u00fcsl\u00fcmanlar b\u00f6lgeye n\u00fcfuz etmeye ba\u015flad\u0131klar\u0131nda Lodilerin de merkezi kabul edilen Agra\u2019ya yerle\u015firken, \u015fehir yeni devletin merkezi olarak varl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 s\u00fcrd\u00fcrd\u00fc. H\u00fck\u00fcmdar Bab\u00fcr, Hindistan topraklar\u0131n\u0131n t\u00fcm\u00fcne hakim olma arzusu ta\u015f\u0131makla birlikte, devlet daha ziyade o\u011flu Ekber d\u00f6nemindeki geli\u015fmelerle an\u0131l\u0131r. 16. y\u00fczy\u0131l sonlar\u0131na do\u011fru Ekber\u2019in h\u00fck\u00fcmdarl\u0131\u011f\u0131 alt\u0131nda devlet Hindistan\u2019da hakim bir siyasi g\u00fc\u00e7 haline geldi. \u00d6yle ki, b\u00f6lge halk\u0131 Ekber\u2019in katk\u0131lar\u0131ndan \u00f6t\u00fcr\u00fc Agra\u2019y\u0131 \u2018Ekber-abad<\/em>\u2019 ad\u0131yla anar.<\/p>\n

      Humayun ve o\u011flu Ekber d\u00f6neminde y\u00fckselme devrini ya\u015fayan Bab\u00fcrl\u00fcler, 18. y\u00fczy\u0131l ba\u015flar\u0131nda yani I. Alemgir\u2019in vefat\u0131n\u0131n ard\u0131ndan duraklama ve ard\u0131ndan gerileme d\u00f6nemine ba\u015flad\u0131. Duraklama ve gerileme s\u00fcre\u00e7leri yukar\u0131da ifade edilen \u00e7e\u015fitli toplumsal kurumlar\u0131n olgunla\u015fmas\u0131n\u0131n ard\u0131ndan yozla\u015fman\u0131n ve kendini yenileyememenin bir sonucu olarak ortaya \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131. Bunda, hi\u00e7 ku\u015fku yok ki, zamanla b\u00f6lgede a\u011f\u0131rl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 hissettiren s\u00f6m\u00fcrgeci y\u00f6netimin tar\u0131msal \u00fcretim s\u00fcre\u00e7leri ve ticareti y\u00f6nlendirmesinin de yerli unsurlar\u0131n tedrici olarak gerilemesine yol a\u00e7t\u0131. Birka\u00e7 y\u00fczy\u0131l i\u00e7erisinde olu\u015fan bu toplumsal yap\u0131lar\u0131n bir b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fc i\u015flevini yitirirken, bir b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fc de b\u00f6lgenin bir anlamda siyasi miras\u00e7\u0131s\u0131 konumuna y\u00fckselen \u00f6nce Marathalar ve ard\u0131ndan da s\u00f6m\u00fcrgeci \u0130ngiliz y\u00f6netimi taraf\u0131ndan devr al\u0131nd\u0131.[45]<\/a><\/p>\n

      Humayun d\u00f6neminde Surlar\u0131n Bab\u00fcr topraklar\u0131na n\u00fcfuzu ve ard\u0131ndan Humayun\u2019un bir hastal\u0131\u011fa yakalanmas\u0131 bir fetret d\u00f6nemine yol a\u00e7t\u0131. Humayun\u2019un 1555 y\u0131l\u0131nda Surlara kar\u015f\u0131 k\u0131smi bir ba\u015far\u0131 elde etmesine ra\u011fmen, kaybetti\u011fi topraklar\u0131n t\u00fcm\u00fcn\u00fc alamad\u0131. 1556 y\u0131l\u0131nda vefat\u0131n\u0131n ard\u0131ndan daha gen\u00e7 bir \u00e7ocuk olan Ekber\u2019in tahta \u00e7\u0131k\u0131\u015f\u0131 Bayram Han\u2019\u0131n naibli\u011finde ge\u00e7en be\u015f y\u0131l\u0131n ard\u0131ndan Bab\u00fcrl\u00fcler i\u00e7in yeniden y\u00fckselme y\u0131llar\u0131 oldu. Surlara kar\u015f\u0131 ba\u015far\u0131 kazan\u0131l\u0131rken \u00fclke topraklar\u0131 bug\u00fcnk\u00fc Pakistan, Afganistan ile kuzey ve orta Hindistan\u2019\u0131 kapsayacak geni\u015fli\u011fe ula\u015ft\u0131.[46]<\/a><\/p>\n

      Ekber\u2019in geni\u015f bir co\u011frafya \u00fczerinde sa\u011flad\u0131\u011f\u0131 ba\u015far\u0131 ve siyasi istikrara ra\u011fmen, eklektik d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce yap\u0131s\u0131 ve kimilerinin ifade etti\u011fi \u00fczere sa\u011flam temellere \u00fczerine in\u015fa edilmemi\u015f felsefi anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131 nedeniyle geleneksel \u0130slam anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131 d\u0131\u015f\u0131nda dini ve toplumsal yap\u0131lanmalar\u0131n ortaya \u00e7\u0131kmas\u0131na neden oldu. Bu s\u00fcre\u00e7, \u0130slamiyeti b\u00f6lgedeki di\u011fer dini yap\u0131larla birarada de\u011ferlendiren bir t\u00fcr ortak inan\u00e7 olu\u015fumuna sevk etti.[47]<\/a> Bu s\u00fcrecin, o g\u00fcne kadar devlet i\u00e7erisinde farkl\u0131 bir yere konumland\u0131r\u0131lm\u0131\u015f olan M\u00fcsl\u00fcman kitleler \u00fczerinde b\u0131rakt\u0131\u011f\u0131 olumsuz etki, zamanla devletin siyasi istikrar\u0131n\u0131n da olumsuz y\u00f6nde etkilenmesi gibi bir s\u00fcrece evrildi. Bu ba\u011flamda, devletin duraklama ve gerileme d\u00f6nemine girmesinde Ekber\u2019in h\u00fck\u00fcmdarl\u0131\u011f\u0131nda ortaya \u00e7\u0131kan bu sosyo-dini d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015f\u00fcm\u00fcn pay\u0131 g\u00f6z ard\u0131 edilmemelidir.<\/p>\n

      Bu \u00e7er\u00e7evede, Ekber \u015eah d\u00f6nemi (1556-1605) bir Timur imparatoru gibi h\u00fck\u00fcm s\u00fcrerken, I. Alemgir h\u00fck\u00fcmdarl\u0131\u011f\u0131nda (1658-1707) geni\u015f siyasi y\u00f6netim merkezleri ile g\u00fc\u00e7 ve pragmatizme dayanan politikalar\u0131yla ayakta kalabildi. Bunun ard\u0131ndan ise, duraklama ve \u00e7\u00f6k\u00fc\u015f s\u00fcreci kendini g\u00f6stermeye ba\u015flad\u0131.[48]<\/a><\/p>\n

      \u00d6te yandan, 17. y\u00fczy\u0131l ikinci yar\u0131s\u0131nda h\u00fck\u00fcm s\u00fcren I. Alemgir \u015eah d\u00f6nemi devletin y\u00fckseli\u015f s\u00fcrecine i\u015faret eder. Ya\u015fanan taht kavgalar\u0131 merkezi idarenin zay\u0131flamas\u0131 ve toprak kay\u0131plar\u0131n\u0131 beraberinde getirirken, b\u00f6lgede etkin olan Orta Asya\u2019n\u0131n g\u00fcneyindeki g\u00fc\u00e7ler ve yerli g\u00fc\u00e7lerin yan\u0131 s\u0131ra, \u0130ngilizlerin b\u00f6lge ticaretinde s\u00f6z sahibi olmaya ba\u015flad\u0131\u011f\u0131 bir d\u00f6neme tekab\u00fcl eder. Tarihin erken devirlerinde oldu\u011fu gibi, 18. y\u00fczy\u0131l ortalar\u0131nda da geleneksel, k\u00f6kl\u00fc soylu aileler etraf\u0131nda olu\u015fan k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck prenslikler varl\u0131k g\u00f6stermeye ba\u015flad\u0131.<\/p>\n

      Bu s\u00fcre\u00e7te \u00fclkenin d\u00f6rt bir yan\u0131nda k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck y\u00f6netim merkezleri ortaya \u00e7\u0131karak kendilerini Mughal imparatorlu\u011funun varisi il\u00e2n ettiler. Bunlar aras\u0131nda Mysore, Haydarabad, Awadh, Bengal ve Maratha h\u00fck\u00fcmdarl\u0131klar\u0131 \u00f6ne \u00e7\u0131k\u0131yordu. Bab\u00fcr hanedanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n zay\u0131flamas\u0131 ve \u00e7evrede yeni g\u00fc\u00e7 odaklar\u0131n\u0131n ortaya \u00e7\u0131kmas\u0131, ayn\u0131 zamanda ba\u015fg\u00f6steren siyasi m\u00fccadelelerde askeri ve siyasi g\u00fcce sahip Avrupal\u0131lar\u0131n varl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n g\u00fcndeme getirilmesine neden oldu. \u00d6rne\u011fin, 1740\u2019l\u0131 y\u0131llar\u0131n ba\u015flar\u0131nda Karnataka h\u00fck\u00fcmdar\u0131 \u0130ngiliz Do\u011fu Hint Y\u00f6netimi\u2019nden ve Frans\u0131z Hint \u015eirketi\u2019nden yard\u0131m isterken, kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131nda bu g\u00fc\u00e7lere vergi toplama imtiyazlar\u0131 verdi.[49]<\/a> T\u00fcrk unsurlar\u0131n\u0131n bu uzun s\u00fcrecin, 17. y\u00fczy\u0131l ilk yar\u0131s\u0131nda gerilemeye ba\u015flamas\u0131n\u0131n nedenleri aras\u0131nda \u2018tar\u0131m krizi\u2019 ad\u0131yla an\u0131lan geli\u015fme ile sava\u015f teknolojileri ve metodlar\u0131 alan\u0131nda \u0130ranl\u0131lar kar\u015f\u0131s\u0131nda gerileme dikkat \u00e7ekicidir.[50]<\/a><\/p>\n

      Bab\u00fcrl\u00fclerin hakimiyet b\u00f6lgesi alt k\u0131tan\u0131n kuzeyi ve orta b\u00f6lgesine do\u011fru uzanan alanla s\u0131n\u0131rl\u0131yd\u0131. Bu ba\u011flamda, n\u00fcfuz edemedikleri pek \u00e7ok b\u00f6lge oldu\u011fu gibi, \u00f6zellikle \u00fclkenin orta b\u00f6lgelerinde hakimiyetleri yerli h\u00fck\u00fcmdarlarla kurulan ittifaklarla sa\u011flan\u0131yordu. Bununla birlikte, o d\u00f6nemin Avrupal\u0131 g\u00f6zlemcilerinin ifadeleriyle Agra ve Delhi\u2019de h\u00fck\u00fcm s\u00fcren h\u00fck\u00fcmdarlar Osmanl\u0131 padi\u015fahlar\u0131 ve \u00c7in imparatorlar\u0131 ile ayn\u0131 seviyede kabul ediliyordu. \u00d6te yandan, mimarl\u0131k ve s\u00fcsleme ba\u015fta olmak \u00fczere sanat\u0131n \u00e7e\u015fitli alanlar\u0131ndaki g\u00f6steri\u015fli tablo, Cihangir\u2019in tablosunu yapan ressamlar\u0131n I. James\u2019in tablosunu yapanlardan \u00fcst\u00fcnl\u00fc\u011f\u00fc ile ortaya konuyordu.[51]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n

      Delhi, Lahor ve A\u011fra \u0130slam d\u00fcnyas\u0131n\u0131n sanat ve mimari alan\u0131nda \u00f6ne \u00e7\u0131kan ve resim sanat\u0131n\u0131n belki de ilk defa bu denli geli\u015fti\u011fi mekanlar olarak dikkat \u00e7eker.[52]<\/sup><\/a> Devletin kurucusu Bab\u00fcr ve I. Alemgir\u2019in edebiyata merakl\u0131 olmalar\u0131, bu anlamda \u0130slam ve Hindu dinini ortak bir noktada birle\u015ftirme gayretlerine varacak kadar b\u00f6lgedeki yerli halk\u0131n dini inan\u00e7lar\u0131na ho\u015fg\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fc yakla\u015fmalar\u0131 ve g\u00f6steri\u015fli sanat ve mimari yap\u0131tlar ortaya koymalar\u0131yla tan\u0131n\u0131rlar.[53]<\/a><\/p>\n

      Bab\u00fcr T\u00fcrkleri \u0130ran k\u00fclt\u00fcr\u00fc tesirinde bulunmakla birlikte, Hindistan\u2019da klasik bir milli mimariye v\u00fccud verdiler. Bunun sebebi, Hindistan\u2019da farkl\u0131 mimari anlay\u0131\u015f\u0131n geli\u015fmesine imk\u00e2n tan\u0131yan malzemenin bulunmas\u0131yla ili\u015fkilendirilir. Hindistan\u2019\u0131n mermer eserlerinden, daha ilk ad\u0131mda, \u00e7ini kalkar ve onun yerine renkli ta\u015f kak\u0131mlar\u0131 ge\u00e7er. Bundan ba\u015fka Osmanl\u0131 mimari, yeni saray ve t\u00fcrbeleri \u00fcslubuna kendi zevklerini getirir. Rene Grousset diyor ki, H\u00fcmayun\u2019un Dehli yak\u0131nlar\u0131ndaki t\u00fcrbesi \u0130sfahan\u2019\u0131 ve Kanuni S\u00fcleyman devri \u0130stanbul\u2019unu hat\u0131ra getirmektedir. Bu binay\u0131, Sinan\u2019\u0131n bir talebesi yapm\u0131\u015f olmal\u0131d\u0131r. Mermer kullanma ve \u00c7iniden uzakla\u015fma, Hindistan\u2019daki T\u00fcrk sanat\u0131n\u0131 \u0130ran ve Osmanl\u0131 sanatlar\u0131ndan s\u00fcratle ay\u0131rm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.[54]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n

      Timur\u2019un neslinden geldiklerini ileri s\u00fcren Bab\u00fcrl\u00fc h\u00fck\u00fcmdarlar\u0131 Orta Asya ile olan bu ba\u011flar\u0131n\u0131 Humayunname<\/em> gibi edebi ve Humayun\u2019un Delhi\u2019deki t\u00fcrbesi ile Agra\u2019daki Ta\u00e7 Mahal mimarisi gibi \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalarda ortaya koymu\u015flard\u0131r.[55]<\/sup><\/a> \u00d6te yandan, bu hanedanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n k\u00f6keniyle ilgili olarak Ishwari Prasad\u2019\u0131n \u015f\u00f6yle dedi\u011fi belirtilir: \u201cBab\u00fcr Mo\u011fol de\u011fil ki, bu imparatorlu\u011fa o ad\u0131 veriyoruz. Kendisi ve o\u011fullar\u0131 sadece T\u00fcrkt\u00fcler. Bab\u00fcr, ger\u00e7ekte, Mo\u011follar\u0131 a\u015fa\u011f\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fcr ve hat\u0131ralar\u0131nda onlar\u0131n hayat tarzlar\u0131ndan nefretle bahseder. Gene kendi yaz\u0131lar\u0131nda T\u00fcrk ve Mo\u011follar\u0131 birbirinden ay\u0131rmaya her zaman dikkat etmi\u015ftir.\u201d[56]<\/sup><\/a> 16. y\u00fczy\u0131l ba\u015flar\u0131nda \u00c7a\u011fatay T\u00fcrkleri olarak da bilinen Timuro\u011fullar\u0131ndan Zahiruddin Muhammed Bab\u00fcr\u2019\u00fcn kurdu\u011fu devlet 19. y\u00fczy\u0131l ortalar\u0131na kadar varl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 s\u00fcrd\u00fcrd\u00fc. Bununla birlikte, Bab\u00fcr\u2019\u00fcn bir T\u00fcrk komutan\u0131 oldu\u011fu ifade edilirken, Falih R\u0131fk\u0131 Atay, T\u00fcrk olan bu devlete \u2018Mo\u011fol\u2019 ad\u0131 verilmesi bir \u2018adet\u2019 oldu\u011funu ileri s\u00fcrer.[57]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n

      Bab\u00fcr hakimiyeti monolitik bir y\u00f6netim arz etmiyordu. Aksine, imparatorun \u201c\u015fahlar \u015fah\u0131\u201d olarak da adland\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131nda g\u00f6r\u00fcld\u00fc\u011f\u00fc \u00fczere, \u00fclkede yerel ve b\u00f6lge y\u00f6netimleri birbirleriyle farkl\u0131 boyutta ili\u015fkilere sahip y\u00f6neticilerce ortaya konuyordu. \u00d6rne\u011fin, sadece Deccan<\/em> b\u00f6lgesinde etraf\u0131 surlarla \u00e7evrili bin kadar yerle\u015fim yeri oldu\u011fu ve buralarda soylular (zamindar<\/em>) y\u00f6neticilik yaparken hem h\u00fck\u00fcmdara ba\u011fl\u0131 hem de y\u00f6netimi payla\u015farak toplumsal ve siyasal varl\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131 s\u00fcrd\u00fcr\u00fcyorlard\u0131.[58]<\/a><\/p>\n

      Bu uzun d\u00f6nemi \u00f6zetlemek gerekirse, \u015fu hususlara dikkat \u00e7ekmekte fayda var. 11. y\u00fczy\u0131lda ba\u015flayan ve Gazneliler, Delhi ve Bab\u00fcrl\u00fcler gibi belli ba\u015fl\u0131 T\u00fcrk-M\u00fcsl\u00fcman hanedanl\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131n varl\u0131\u011f\u0131 18. y\u00fczy\u0131la kadar devaml\u0131l\u0131k g\u00f6sterdi. Bu uzun s\u00fcre\u00e7te pek \u00e7ok hanedanl\u0131k birbiri ard\u0131 s\u0131ra gelen bu devlet yap\u0131lar\u0131nda bir devaml\u0131l\u0131\u011fa yol a\u00e7arken, iktidar de\u011fi\u015fikliklerinin b\u00f6lge iklimiyle ba\u011flant\u0131l\u0131 bir y\u00f6n\u00fc oldu\u011funa dikkat \u00e7ekilir. Buna g\u00f6re, toplumsal kaynaklar\u0131n\u0131 yenilemeyen iktidarlar\u0131n k\u0131sa bir s\u00fcre sonra yerlerini yeni ve taze g\u00fc\u00e7lerle beslenmi\u015f ba\u015fka g\u00fc\u00e7 odaklar\u0131na b\u0131rakt\u0131\u011f\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fcr.[59]<\/a> \u00a0Bununla birlikte, Hindistan tarihi genel itibar\u0131yla bak\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131nda bir T\u00fcrk-M\u00fcsl\u00fcman tarihi olarak da an\u0131lmay\u0131 hak eder.<\/p>\n

      Bununla birlikte, y\u00f6neticilerin karizmatik ki\u015filikleri, geni\u015f tar\u0131m arazilerinin sulama, \u015fehirle\u015fme gibi alt yap\u0131 \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131, toprak kullan\u0131m\u0131 ve vergi gibi alanlardaki \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131n b\u00f6lgede uzun s\u00fcreli varl\u0131k g\u00f6stermenin nedenleri aras\u0131nda saymak m\u00fcmk\u00fcn. T\u00fcrk hanedanl\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131n hakimiyetlerinin ard\u0131ndaki bir di\u011fer neden ise, devlet kurma ve liderlik vas\u0131flar\u0131yla \u00f6n pl\u00e2na \u00e7\u0131kmalar\u0131d\u0131r. Bu liderlik vasf\u0131n\u0131 destekleyici olarak idari kadrolar ile sanat ve edebiyat alanlar\u0131nda ise Farsiler \u00f6nemli rol icra ettiler. Bu unsurlara Hindistanl\u0131lar yani yerlilerle Afganl\u0131lar, Tatarlar gibi farkl\u0131 milletlerin bir siyasi \u00e7at\u0131 alt\u0131nda biraraya gelmeleri s\u00f6z konusu oldu.[60]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n

      \n

      D\u0131\u015f fakt\u00f6rler yani, Timur \u00f6rne\u011finde oldu\u011fu gibi Mo\u011follar, i\u00e7 fakt\u00f6rler yani d\u00f6nem d\u00f6nem ya\u015fanan \u00e7at\u0131\u015fmalar, hanedanl\u0131k kavgalar\u0131 gibi nedenlere ra\u011fmen, yedi il\u00e2 sekiz y\u00fcz y\u0131l gibi uzun bir d\u00f6nem farkl\u0131 milletleri birarada tutabilme becerisi \u00fczerinde d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fclmeye de\u011ferdir. Yukar\u0131da dikkat \u00e7ekildi\u011fi \u00fczere b\u00f6lgede kurulan \u00e7e\u015fitli devletler ve hanedanl\u0131klar birbirini takip eden s\u00fcre\u00e7lerde elli\u015fer veya y\u00fczer y\u0131ll\u0131k s\u00fcrelerle h\u00fck\u00fcm s\u00fcrmelerine ra\u011fmen, devlet yap\u0131s\u0131nda devaml\u0131l\u0131k oldu\u011funa dikkat \u00e7ekmek gerekir. Bu \u00e7er\u00e7evede, bu devleti idame ettirecek sosyal, siyasal, askeri ve ekonomik kurumlar\u0131n varl\u0131\u011f\u0131 ve halk\u0131n bu y\u00f6netimleri kabul\u00fc gibi yap\u0131sal durum g\u00f6z ard\u0131 edilmemelidir.<\/p>\n

      \n

        \n
      1. y\u00fczy\u0131l \u0130ngiltere s\u00f6m\u00fcrgesi haline gelmesi ve 1857 ayaklanmas\u0131na kadar ge\u00e7en s\u00fcrede \u0130ngiliz s\u00f6m\u00fcr\u00fcs\u00fcn\u00fcn etkileri<\/strong><\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

        Uzun y\u00fczy\u0131llar boyunca Hindistan\u2019\u0131n \u00f6zellikle kuzeybat\u0131 ve orta kesimlerinde h\u00fck\u00fcm s\u00fcren \u0130slam sultanl\u0131klar\u0131, ya\u015fanan \u00e7e\u015fitli siyasi ve toplumsal \u00e7alkant\u0131lar\u0131n sebebiyet verdi\u011fi krizleri iktidara ge\u00e7en yeni hanedanl\u0131klar vas\u0131tas\u0131yla ge\u00e7i\u015ftirdi. Bununla birlikte, fetret d\u00f6nemlerinde b\u00f6lgenin kadim siyasi yap\u0131lar\u0131 prenslikler de, yeniden birer g\u00fc\u00e7 merkezleri olarak ortaya \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131. Bu s\u00fcre\u00e7te hi\u00e7 ku\u015fku yok ki, b\u00f6lgenin tar\u0131msal \u00fcretimdeki rol\u00fc; do\u011fu-bat\u0131, kuzey-g\u00fcney ticaretinde sahip oldu\u011fu jeo-stratejik konumu; taht kavgalar\u0131 gibi siyasi nedenler ile sosyal buhranlar\u0131 a\u015fmada gerekli reformlar\u0131n hayata ge\u00e7irilememesi \u00f6ne \u00e7\u0131kan fakt\u00f6rlerdi. Bunlara il\u00e2ve olarak, 15. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n sonlar\u0131nda Bat\u0131l\u0131 s\u00f6m\u00fcrgeci denizci uluslar\u0131n ilki olan Portekizliler, Hindistan\u2019\u0131n liman \u015fehirlerinde hakimiyet s\u00fcrecine ba\u015flad\u0131.<\/p>\n

        Portekizlilerin, ticari ve ekonomik nedenlerin yan\u0131 s\u0131ra, Katolik H\u0131ristiyanl\u0131\u011f\u0131n temsilcisi s\u0131fat\u0131yla g\u00fcndeme gelmesi, b\u00f6lgede baz\u0131 tepkilerin ortaya \u00e7\u0131kmas\u0131na neden oldu. Bu s\u00fcre\u00e7te, denizci ve askeri g\u00fcc\u00fcn\u00fc uzun sahil \u015feritleri boyunca uzanan ticaret liman \u015fehirlerinde uygulayan Portekizlilerin yerini, 17. y\u00fczy\u0131l ba\u015flar\u0131nda \u0130ngilizler ald\u0131. \u0130ngilizlerin varl\u0131\u011f\u0131, dini saiklerle de\u011fil, aksine, kendilerini b\u00f6lgenin zengin baharat ve ipekli metalar ticaretinde Avrupa\u2019n\u0131n \u00f6nc\u00fcs\u00fc olma arzusuna dayan\u0131yordu. Bu nedenle, \u0130ngilizlerle ard\u0131ndan gelecek di\u011fer Avrupal\u0131 uluslar\u0131n b\u00f6lgedeki varl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131, Hint-Alt k\u0131tas\u0131 ve di\u011fer b\u00f6lgelerin zenginliklerinin uluslararas\u0131 pazara ta\u015f\u0131nmas\u0131 ve akabinde Avrupa\u2019daki end\u00fcstriyel \u00fcr\u00fcnlerin b\u00f6lge pazar\u0131nda ula\u015ft\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131 s\u00fcrecindeki m\u00fccadelenin bir sonucu olarak de\u011ferlendirmek gerekir. Bu anlamda, \u0130ngilizleri, \u0130ber Yar\u0131madas\u0131 Katoliklerinden farkl\u0131 bir y\u00f6ntem izledikleri ve daha kapsay\u0131c\u0131 ve i\u015fbirli\u011fine a\u00e7\u0131k politikalar\u0131yla b\u00f6lgedeki prensliklerle tedrici olarak yapt\u0131klar\u0131 anla\u015fmalar\u0131 hayata ge\u00e7irmeye ba\u015flad\u0131lar. \u0130ngilizlerin kuzeybat\u0131 Hindistan\u2019da Bab\u00fcrl\u00fclerin hakimiyetindeki Surat liman\u0131nda ticaret yapmak \u00fczere anla\u015fma yapmalar\u0131, b\u00f6lgeye ilgi ve n\u00fcfuzlar\u0131n\u0131n ba\u015flang\u0131c\u0131n\u0131 olu\u015fturur.[61]<\/a><\/p>\n

        \u0130ngilizler de \u00f6nceleri Hindistan\u2019da liman \u015fehirlerinde olu\u015fturduklar\u0131 ticaret \u00fcslerinde faaliyetlerini ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirirken, bu ticareti g\u00fcvenlik alt\u0131na alacak kale in\u015fas\u0131 gibi g\u00fcvenlik tedbirlerine ba\u015fvururken, siyasi ve teritoryal anlamda tedrici bir ilerleme kaydettiler. Bu ba\u011flamda, \u00f6rne\u011fin Alt K\u0131ta\u2019n\u0131n do\u011fusunda \u00f6nemli bir \u015fehir olan Madras\u2019a 1639 y\u0131l\u0131ndan itibaren yerle\u015fmeye ba\u015flad\u0131lar.[62]<\/a><\/p>\n

        \u0130ngilizler, 17. y\u00fczy\u0131l ba\u015f\u0131nda kurduklar\u0131 Do\u011fu Hint \u015eirketi marifetiyle Surat liman\u0131na \u00e7\u0131kmalar\u0131ndan bir bu\u00e7uk as\u0131r sonra b\u00f6lgede siyasi bir g\u00fc\u00e7 haline geldiler. Bu siyasi g\u00fcc\u00fcn ilk evresi kabul edilen 1765 ve 1793 y\u0131llar\u0131 aras\u0131nda \u0130ngilizler Bab\u00fcr devletinin siyasi yap\u0131s\u0131n\u0131 miras ald\u0131lar.[63]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n

        Bununla birlikte, 18. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n ortalar\u0131nda Do\u011fu Hint \u015eirketi\u2019nin yap\u0131sal bir de\u011fi\u015fikli\u011fe konu oldu. \u00d6yle ki, o d\u00f6neme kadar hedefi b\u00f6lgesel ve k\u0131talararas\u0131 ticaret olan \u0130ngiliz Do\u011fu Hint \u015eirketi, 1745 ve 1784 y\u0131llar\u0131 aras\u0131nda ya\u015fanan ge\u00e7i\u015f d\u00f6neminin ard\u0131ndan bir ordu g\u00fcc\u00fcne evrildi. Bu s\u00fcre\u00e7, \u0130ngiliz s\u00f6m\u00fcrge y\u00f6netiminin Bengal\u2019den ba\u015flayarak b\u00f6lgenin, \u00f6zellikle kuzey ve bat\u0131 b\u00f6l\u00fcmlerine do\u011fru ekonomik ve sosyo-k\u00fclt\u00fcrel yay\u0131lmac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n ortaya \u00e7\u0131kmas\u0131na yol a\u00e7t\u0131. Bu yay\u0131lmac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n tepkisiz kald\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 s\u00f6ylemek ise m\u00fcmk\u00fcn de\u011fil. \u00d6yle ki, Bengal ve Bihar b\u00f6lgesinde, 18 y\u00fczy\u0131lda (1764) \u0130ngiliz y\u00f6netimine kar\u015f\u0131 baz\u0131 ayaklanmalar oldu.[64]<\/a> Bu s\u00fcre\u00e7te, \u0130ngiliz s\u00f6m\u00fcrge y\u00f6netimi, sadece ticari ve ekonomik faaliyetlerle ilgilenmekle kalmad\u0131, bunun yan\u0131 s\u0131ra, siyasi ve k\u00fclt\u00fcrel s\u00fcre\u00e7lere de m\u00fcdahale etmeye ba\u015flad\u0131.<\/p>\n

        \u00d6zerk y\u00f6netimler olarak varl\u0131k s\u00fcren ve zengin kaynaklar\u0131 oldu\u011fu bilinen b\u00f6lgelerdeki racalar \u00fczerinde siyasi ve askeri egemenlik s\u00fcrecine ba\u015flad\u0131. Racalarla tek tek yap\u0131lan anla\u015fmalar vergi toplanmas\u0131 ve \u0130ngiliz birliklerinin varl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 me\u015frula\u015ft\u0131r\u0131yordu. Bu ba\u011flamda, siyasi egemenli\u011fin do\u011frudan ifadesi olarak, racalar\u0131n \u0130ngilizlerden ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131z olarak herhangi bir \u00fc\u00e7\u00fcnc\u00fc tarafla anla\u015fma imzalanmamas\u0131 \u015fart\u0131 yerli y\u00f6netimlerin siyasi ba\u011f\u0131ml\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n bir ifadesiydi. Tabii \u0130ngilizlerin, \u00f6zellikle Bengal \u00fczerinde ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirdikleri ticari ve siyasi hakimiyet, zamanla yay\u0131lmac\u0131l\u0131k s\u00fcre\u00e7leri ba\u011flam\u0131nda Burma \u00fczerinde bir bask\u0131ya yol a\u00e7t\u0131. Bu anlamda, ilgili racalarla yap\u0131lan anla\u015fmalar\u0131n bu geli\u015fmeye bir haz\u0131rl\u0131k niteli\u011fi ta\u015f\u0131d\u0131\u011f\u0131 da ortadad\u0131r.[65]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n

        \u0130ngilizlerin Hindistan\u2019daki siyasi hakimiyetlerinde belirleyici unsurlar\u0131n biri \u0130ngiliz subaylar\u0131n ve yerli askerleri de i\u00e7eren orduydu. \u0130ngiliz subaylar\u0131n e\u011fitim ve y\u00f6netimindeki yerlilerden m\u00fcte\u015fekkil ordu Sepoy, yani Sipahi ad\u0131yla an\u0131l\u0131rken, sadece bu co\u011frafyan\u0131n de\u011fil, imparatorluk ad\u0131 verilen yap\u0131n\u0131n uzun bir d\u00f6nem \u0130ngilizlerin y\u00f6netiminde olmas\u0131nda ba\u015fat rol oynad\u0131.[66]<\/a> \u0130ngilizlerin 19. y\u00fczy\u0131l ba\u015flar\u0131ndaki hakimiyeti art\u0131k b\u00f6lgede ticari bir tekelin yerini siyasi bir imparatorlu\u011fun ald\u0131\u011f\u0131 d\u00f6neme i\u015faret eder.[67]<\/a><\/p>\n

        K\u0131saca de\u011finilen bu s\u00fcre\u00e7ler dikkate al\u0131nd\u0131\u011f\u0131nda, \u0130ngilizlerin Hindistan topraklar\u0131ndaki siyasi varl\u0131\u011f\u0131 tarihi bir tesad\u00fcf de\u011fil, aksine, bu topraklar\u0131n sahip oldu\u011fu ekonomik de\u011ferinin ve insan i\u015fg\u00fcc\u00fcn\u00fcn \u0130ngiliz rasyonalitesi ve pragmatizminin bir sonucudur. Portekizlilerin liman \u015fehirleri merkezli olmak \u00fczere, y\u00fcz elli y\u0131la varan hakimiyetinin ard\u0131ndan Hollandal\u0131lar\u0131n bu b\u00f6lge ticaretinde var olma arzusu, \u0130ngilizleri Alt K\u0131ta\u2019da giderek daha etkin bir egemenlik kurmaya sevk ediyordu. Bu durum, hi\u00e7 ku\u015fku yok ki, Avrupa\u2019n\u0131n s\u00f6m\u00fcrgeci \u00fclkelerinin b\u00f6lgeye y\u00f6nelik ilgisinde bir devaml\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 da ortaya koymaktad\u0131r. \u00d6yle ki, bu s\u00fcre\u00e7, \u0130ngiltere Krall\u0131\u011f\u0131\u2019n\u0131n \u2018g\u00fcne\u015f batmayan imparatorluk\u2019 olarak adland\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131nda oldu\u011fu \u00fczere, ekonomik ve de demografik \u00f6zelli\u011fiyle \u00f6ne \u00e7\u0131kmaktad\u0131r.<\/p>\n

        \u0130ngilizlerin varl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n b\u00f6lgedeki etnik ve dini ili\u015fkilerin yeniden yap\u0131land\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131nda da rol oynad\u0131\u011f\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fcr. Uzun y\u00fczy\u0131llar boyunca M\u00fcsl\u00fcman devletlerin \u00e7at\u0131s\u0131 alt\u0131nda hayat s\u00fcrm\u00fc\u015f olan b\u00f6lge M\u00fcsl\u00fcmanlar\u0131, \u00f6zellikle 19. y\u00fczy\u0131l ba\u015flar\u0131ndan itibaren geli\u015fen \u015fartlar nedeniyle s\u00f6m\u00fcrge y\u00f6netimine kar\u015f\u0131 rahats\u0131zl\u0131klar\u0131 g\u00fcndeme gelmi\u015ftir. Bunun en \u00e7arp\u0131c\u0131 somut \u00f6rne\u011fi 1857 y\u0131l\u0131ndaki orduda ba\u015fg\u00f6steren ayaklanma oldu. Her ne kadar, bu ayaklanmada M\u00fcsl\u00fcmanlar \u00f6n pl\u00e2na \u00e7\u0131ksa da, \u0130ngiliz y\u00f6netiminden ho\u015fnutsuz olan Hindular\u0131n deste\u011fi de s\u00f6z konusuydu.[68]<\/a><\/p>\n

        1857 y\u0131l\u0131nda ya\u015fanan isyan bu co\u011frafyadaki t\u00fcm ordular i\u00e7erisinde de\u011fil, aksine belli bir \u00e7evrede ortaya \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131. \u00d6rne\u011fin isyan\u0131n kuzey-bat\u0131\u2019da Delhi\u2019den do\u011fuda Bihar\u2019a kadar olan b\u00f6lgede \u00e7\u0131k\u0131p, Madras\u2019da isyan \u00e7\u0131kmamas\u0131, buradaki \u0130ngiliz subaylar\u0131n\u0131n profesyonelliklerine, Hintli askerlerin k\u00fclt\u00fcrel yap\u0131lar\u0131na duyarl\u0131l\u0131klar\u0131na ba\u011flan\u0131rken, isyana sebep olarak zikredilen nedenler aras\u0131nda \u00f6rne\u011fin Bengal\u2019de tekstil \u00fcretimiyle ilgili politikalarla tar\u0131m politikalar\u0131n\u0131n orduya yans\u0131mas\u0131 da bulunuyordu. Bundan kas\u0131t, askerlerin toplumsal k\u00f6ken olarak kuzey Hindistan\u2019daki tar\u0131m b\u00f6lgelerinden gelmelerine yer verilir. Bu ba\u011flamda, \u0130ngiliz sivil ve askeri y\u00f6netiminin uygulamalar\u0131ndan ne\u015fet etti\u011fi anla\u015f\u0131lan bu isyan, ordu merkezli olmakla birlikte, bundan \u00e7ok daha b\u00fcy\u00fck bir anlam i\u00e7erir.[69]<\/a><\/p>\n

        Bu ayaklanma s\u00fcreci s\u0131radan bir geli\u015fme olmay\u0131p, aksine gayet bilin\u00e7li ve pl\u00e2nl\u0131 bir \u015fekilde uygulamaya kondu\u011fu belirtilir. \u00d6yle ki, \u0130ngilizlerle \u00f6zde\u015fle\u015ftirilen binalar, kurumlar, sald\u0131r\u0131ya u\u011frayan yerler oldu\u011fu gibi, \u0130ngilizlerle i\u015fbirli\u011fi yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 ileri s\u00fcr\u00fclen ve aralar\u0131nda Sir Seyyid Ahmed Khan gibi d\u00f6nemin \u00f6nde gelen ki\u015fileri de bu s\u00fcre\u00e7te hedef se\u00e7ildiler. Genel itibar\u0131yla bak\u0131ld\u0131\u011f\u0131nda ise, hedefte ge\u00e7en y\u00fcz y\u0131ll\u0131k s\u00fcre zarf\u0131nda \u0130ngiliz y\u00f6netiminin sipahilerin tan\u0131k olduklar\u0131 haks\u0131zl\u0131klar\u0131n intikam\u0131 al\u0131nd\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 s\u00f6ylemek m\u00fcmk\u00fcn. \u00d6yle ki, her ne kadar yukar\u0131da \u0130ngilizler hedef se\u00e7ildi dense de, temelde Avrupal\u0131lar ve H\u0131ristiyanlar bu s\u00fcrecin \u2018\u00f6tekisi\u2019 olarak yer al\u0131yorlard\u0131.[70]<\/a> Bu isyan\u0131n b\u00f6lgedeki sadece M\u00fcsl\u00fcmanlar a\u00e7\u0131s\u0131ndan de\u011fil, Hindular dahil t\u00fcm halklar i\u00e7in bir uyan\u0131\u015f vesilesi oldu\u011fu s\u00f6ylenebilir. \u00d6yle ki, Londra y\u00f6netimi, Hindistan\u2019\u0131n y\u00f6netimini Do\u011fu Hint \u015eirketi\u2019nden al\u0131p bizzat \u0130ngiliz h\u00fck\u00fcmetine ba\u011flama karar\u0131n\u0131 vermesi, \u0130ngilizlerce bu topraklar\u0131n ne denli tehlike alt\u0131nda oldu\u011funu g\u00f6sterir.[71]<\/a><\/p>\n

        Ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131zl\u0131k \u00f6ncesi geli\u015fmeler <\/strong><\/p>\n

        Aralar\u0131nda M\u00fcsl\u00fcmanlar\u0131n da bulundu\u011fu ordunun 1857 y\u0131l\u0131ndaki isyan\u0131n\u0131n ard\u0131ndan, yukar\u0131da dikkat \u00e7ekildi\u011fi \u00fczere, ayaklanman\u0131n sadece M\u00fcsl\u00fcmanlarla s\u0131n\u0131rl\u0131 olmamas\u0131, di\u011fer din ve etnik gruplar\u0131n da s\u00f6m\u00fcrge y\u00f6netimine tepkileri \u00e7er\u00e7evesinde \u015fu veya bu \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde yer almalar\u0131na ra\u011fmen, \u0130ngiliz s\u00f6m\u00fcrge y\u00f6netimi isyan\u0131n sorumlulu\u011funu M\u00fcsl\u00fcmanlar\u0131n \u00fczerine y\u0131kt\u0131. Bu isyan\u0131n ard\u0131ndan ge\u00e7en s\u00fcre\u00e7te, hem siyasi alanda hem de orduda \u0130ngilizlerin M\u00fcsl\u00fcmanlara y\u00f6nelik ayr\u0131mc\u0131 tutumlar\u0131n\u0131n temelini olu\u015fturdu\u011fu s\u00f6ylemek m\u00fcmk\u00fcn. Bu d\u00f6nem, ayn\u0131 zamanda Avrupa\u2019daki iktisadi, siyasi ve askeri geli\u015fmeler ve rekabetin bir sonucu olarak s\u00f6m\u00fcrgecili\u011fin emperyalizme evrildi\u011fi bir d\u00f6neme i\u015faret eder.<\/p>\n

        S\u00f6m\u00fcrge topraklar\u0131nda iktisadi \u00fcretim s\u00fcre\u00e7lerinin ve bununla ba\u011flant\u0131l\u0131 olarak pazar pay\u0131n\u0131n art\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131 kadar, siyasi y\u00f6netim mekanizmas\u0131nda giderek b\u00fcrokratikle\u015fen bir a\u011f meydana getirildi. \u0130ngilizler bu s\u00fcre\u00e7te M\u00fcsl\u00fcmanlara y\u00f6nelik d\u0131\u015flay\u0131c\u0131 politikalar\u0131na kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131k, ba\u015fta Hindular olmak \u00fczere di\u011fer din ve etnik yap\u0131dan gruplar\u0131n \u00f6ne \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131\u011f\u0131 ve \u00f6zellikle e\u011fitim, b\u00fcrokraside yeniden yap\u0131lanma s\u00fcre\u00e7lerine konu oldular. Bu geli\u015fmenin de i\u00e7inde bulundu\u011fu baz\u0131 nedenlerle, Hinduizmin temsilcileri bu dini, bir toplumsal g\u00fc\u00e7 olarak ortaya koyma u\u011fra\u015f\u0131 verdiler. Neo-hinduism ad\u0131 verilen bu yap\u0131lanman\u0131n dil ve milliyet\u00e7ilik gibi g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc toplumsal kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 olurken, ayn\u0131 zamanda M\u00fcsl\u00fcman kitlelerle bir t\u00fcr \u00e7at\u0131\u015fma ortam\u0131na da yol a\u00e7mas\u0131yla dikkat \u00e7ekicidir.[72]<\/a><\/p>\n

        Bu s\u00fcre\u00e7, \u0130ngilizleri sahil \u015fehirlerindeki ticari ya\u015famda belirleyicilikten, dev bir co\u011frafyada, emperyalizme evrilen bir imparatorluk boyutuna ta\u015f\u0131d\u0131. B\u00f6lgesel ve yerel y\u00f6netimlerde az say\u0131da \u0130ngiliz y\u00f6neticiye kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131k, geleneksel yerli toplumlar\u0131n \u2018soylular\u2019 tabakas\u0131na mensup aileler bu yap\u0131n\u0131n dinamiklerini olu\u015fturdu. Bununla birlikte, yukar\u0131da dikkat \u00e7ekildi\u011fi \u00fczere M\u00fcsl\u00fcmanlar bu s\u00fcre\u00e7te sosyo-ekonomik s\u00fcre\u00e7lerde geri b\u0131rak\u0131lan bir z\u00fcmre haline geldi. \u0130ngiliz s\u00f6m\u00fcrge y\u00f6netiminin sa\u011flad\u0131\u011f\u0131 e\u011fitim olanaklar\u0131, di\u011fer din ve etnik gruplara mensup yerli az\u0131nl\u0131k s\u0131n\u0131f\u0131n\u0131n geleneksel stat\u00fclerini ve ekonomik vars\u0131ll\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131 devam ettirme arzusuyla birle\u015fmesi bir t\u00fcr ortak \u00e7\u0131karlar \u00e7er\u00e7evesinde bir siyasi yap\u0131y\u0131 g\u00fcndeme ta\u015f\u0131d\u0131. Bu durum, s\u00f6m\u00fcrgecili\u011fin sona erdi\u011fi 2. D\u00fcnya Sava\u015f\u0131 sonras\u0131nda y\u00f6netim ve ekonomide elit \u00e7evrelerin de alt yap\u0131s\u0131n\u0131 olu\u015fturmas\u0131yla Hint Alt K\u0131tas\u0131\u2019n\u0131n gelece\u011finde belirleyici bir rol oynad\u0131.[73]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n

        M\u00fcsl\u00fcman kitlelerin s\u00f6m\u00fcrge y\u00f6netimi nezdinde Hindular ba\u015fta olmak \u00fczere di\u011fer din ve etnik gruptan kitleler kar\u015f\u0131s\u0131nda d\u0131\u015flanmas\u0131, \u00f6zellikle y\u00f6netimde siyasi temsilin s\u00f6z konusu oldu\u011fu d\u00f6nemde ciddi bir sorun olarak ortaya \u00e7\u0131kmaya ba\u015flad\u0131. Bu \u00e7er\u00e7evede 1906 y\u0131l\u0131nda Muslim League<\/em> ad\u0131yla kurulan siyasi olu\u015fum, M\u00fcsl\u00fcmanlar\u0131n temsil hakk\u0131 konusunu g\u00fcndeme getirdi. Her ne kadar, daha sonraki s\u00fcre\u00e7te Kongre Partisi ile Hilafet Hareketi aras\u0131nda hedefte birlik g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fc sergilense de, bunda \u00f6zellikle Mahatma Gandhi gibi Hindu liderlerin \u0130ngiliz s\u00f6m\u00fcrge y\u00f6netimine kar\u015f\u0131 M\u00fcsl\u00fcmanlar\u0131n toplumsal ve siyasal g\u00fcc\u00fcnden istifade etme gibi pragmatik bir y\u00f6neliminin \u00f6ne \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131\u011f\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fcr. 1906 y\u0131l\u0131nda M\u00fcsl\u00fcmanlar\u0131n kendi se\u00e7im b\u00f6lgelerinin hayata ge\u00e7irilmesi talebi 1947 y\u0131l\u0131nda Hindistan\u2013Pakistan ayr\u0131m\u0131n\u0131n temellerini olu\u015fturuyordu.[74]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n

        Bununla birlikte, bu genel gidi\u015fata kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131k, Hindistan milliyet\u00e7ili\u011fi eksenli geli\u015fme g\u00f6steren toplumsal harekette Hindular ve M\u00fcsl\u00fcmanlar\u0131n birarada hareket ettikleri g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fcr. Bu ba\u011flamda, bu \u00e7er\u00e7evede, 19. y\u00fczy\u0131l sonlar\u0131nda \u0130ngiliz s\u00f6m\u00fcrge y\u00f6netiminde yerlilerin daha \u00e7ok i\u015f ve e\u011fitim olanaklar\u0131 gibi talepleriyle g\u00fcndeme gelen ve daha sonra milliyet\u00e7ilik hareketinin oda\u011f\u0131n\u0131 olu\u015fturan Kongre hareketi giderek Hindistan\u2019\u0131n temsil eden bir yap\u0131ya evrildi. Bu hareketin, ulusal bir niteli\u011fe b\u00fcr\u00fcnmesi 1912 y\u0131l\u0131nda ba\u015flarken, 1916 y\u0131l\u0131nda hareket i\u00e7erisinde birli\u011fe i\u015faret eden tarihi toplant\u0131 ile Hindistan milliyet\u00e7ili\u011fi \u00f6nemli bir siyasi g\u00fc\u00e7 haline gelmeye ba\u015flad\u0131.[75]<\/a><\/p>\n

        S\u00f6z konusu milliyet\u00e7ilik s\u00fcrecine M\u00fcsl\u00fcmanlar\u0131n da farkl\u0131 ba\u011flamlarda katk\u0131s\u0131 oldu. Bu noktada, Hilafet Hareketi olarak adland\u0131r\u0131lan sosyo-dini hareket Kongre hareketiyle birlikte hareket etmesi dikkat \u00e7ekicidir. M\u00fcsl\u00fcmanlarla Hindular\u0131 s\u00f6m\u00fcrge y\u00f6netimine kar\u015f\u0131 biraraya getiren bu s\u00fcreci 1947 y\u0131l\u0131ndaki ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131zl\u0131\u011fa kadar giden bir y\u00f6n\u00fc vard\u0131r.[76]<\/a><\/p>\n

        Bu \u00f6zellik, ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131zl\u0131k \u00f6ncesinde eyalet se\u00e7imlerinde meclisin y\u00fczde 82\u2019si bu siyasi hareketin mensuplar\u0131 olu\u015fturmas\u0131yla kendini ortaya koydu. Bir t\u00fcr \u2018tek parti\u2019 y\u00f6netimi olarak ne\u015fet eden bu sonu\u00e7 kar\u015f\u0131s\u0131nda M\u00fcsl\u00fcmanlar Birli\u011fi bu geli\u015fmeyi boykot ederken, Hindistan ve Pakistan olmak \u00fczere iki meclis te\u015fekk\u00fcl ettirilmesi talebinde bulundu. Kongre Partisi ultra-milliyet\u00e7i Hindu partisi \u00f6zelli\u011fi ta\u015f\u0131mamakla birlikte, Jawaharlal Nehru\u2019nun 1939 y\u0131l\u0131nda partiyi tan\u0131mlarken yapt\u0131\u011f\u0131 konu\u015fmada dile getirdi\u011fi \u00fczere, a\u011f\u0131rl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 Hindular\u0131n olu\u015fturdu\u011fu ve i\u00e7inde farkl\u0131 dini ve etnik gruplar\u0131n yer ald\u0131\u011f\u0131 bir hareketti.[77]<\/a><\/p>\n

          \n
        1. y\u00fczy\u0131l ba\u015flar\u0131ndaki toplumsal ve siyasal hareketler i\u00e7erisinde dikkat \u00e7eken bir di\u011fer \u00f6nemli husus ise Hindu milliyet\u00e7ili\u011fi hareketinin kendi i\u00e7inde baz\u0131 b\u00f6l\u00fcnmelere u\u011framas\u0131d\u0131r. Ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131zl\u0131k ad\u0131na ve M\u00fcsl\u00fcmanlarla i\u015fbirli\u011fi yapan Hindular\u0131n yan\u0131 s\u0131ra, radikal s\u0131fat\u0131yla an\u0131lan Hindu milliyet\u00e7ili\u011finin de ortaya \u00e7\u0131kt\u0131\u011f\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fcr. Bu ba\u011flamda, \u00f6rne\u011fin Mahatma Gandhi\u2019nin pasifist y\u00f6nelimli hareketine kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131k, Ulusal G\u00f6n\u00fcll\u00fc Organizasyonu (Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh-RSS) ad\u0131yla an\u0131lan siyasi olu\u015fum militarist karakteri ve M\u00fcsl\u00fcmanlar\u0131 kendisine rakip g\u00f6rmesiyle dikkat \u00e7eker.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

          [1]<\/a>Eustace W. Fisher. (1887). India, Journal of the American Geographical Society of New York, Vol. XIX, No. 4, s. 337. (s. 337-354).<\/p>\n

          [2]<\/a>Richard C. Foltz. (2001). Mughal India and Central Asia<\/em>, Karachi: Oxford University Press, s. 8; Henry Beveridge. (1986). <\/em>\u201cIntroduction\u201d, A Comprehensive History of India: Civil, Military and Social<\/em>, Henry Beveridge, Volume I, Reprinted, New Delhi: Associated Publishing House, s. 1.<\/p>\n

          [3]<\/a>Y\u0131lmaz \u00d6zt\u00fcna. (1990). Devletler ve Hanedanlar: \u0130lk \u00c7a\u011f ve Asya-Afrika Devletleri, Cilt 3, K\u00fclt\u00fcr Bakanl\u0131\u011f\u0131, Ankara: Ba\u015fbakanl\u0131k Yay\u0131nevi, s. 280; Mohammad Habib. (2016). Studies in Medieval Indian Polity and Culture: The Delhi Sultanate and Its Times, Oxford: Oxford University Press, s. 40; Al-Muqaddasi. (1994). The Best Divisions for Knowledge of the Regions, (Tr.: Basil Anthony Collins), Reading: Garnet Publishing Limited, s. 417.<\/p>\n

          [4]<\/a>Mortimer Wheeler. (1968). The Indus Civilization: Supplementary Volume to The Cambridge History of India<\/em>, Third Edition, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, s. 24-5; Azmi \u00d6zcan. (1998), \u201cHindistan\u201d, D\u0130A<\/em>, Cilt 18, \u0130stanbul: T\u00fcrkiye Diyanet Vakf\u0131 \u0130slam Ansiklopedisi, s. 75; Claude Markovits. (2000). The Global World of Indian Merchants, 1750-1947<\/em>, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, s. 37.<\/p>\n

          \n

          \n

          [5]<\/a>Clive Ponting. (2011). Yeni Bir Bak\u0131\u015f A\u00e7\u0131s\u0131yla D\u00fcnya Tarihi<\/em>, (\u00c7ev.: \u015eeref Bengi \u00d6zbilen), \u0130stanbul: Alfa Yay\u0131nlar\u0131, s. 83-4, 182, 218.<\/p>\n

          [6]<\/a>Bailey W. Diffie; George D. Winius. (1977). Foundations of the Portuguese Empire: 1415-1580, Vol. I, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, s. 3.<\/p>\n

          [7]<\/a>M. Wilfred Schoff. (1917). \u201cNavigation to the Far East under the Roman Empire\u201d, Journal of the American Oriental Society<\/em>, Vol. 37, s. 244. (s. 240-249); Da-Show Huang. (1968). \u201cAn Outline of China\u2019s Contact With South India in The Early Fifteenth Century\u201d, (ed.), R. E. Asher, Proceedings of the Second International Conference Seminar of Tamil Studies<\/em>, January, Madras: International Association of Tamil Research, s. 245, 248.<\/p>\n

          [8]<\/a>George Rawlinson. (1889). History of Pheonicia<\/em>, London: Longmans-Green and Co., s. 305-307; T. Braddell. (1970). \u201cThe Ancient Trade of The Indian Archipelago\u201d, (ed.), J. R. Logan, The Journal of The Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia<\/em>, New Series-Vol II, Singapore: Kraus-Thomson Organization Limited, s. 237-8.<\/p>\n

          [9]<\/a>William Brooks Greenlee. (1937). The Voyage of Pedro Alvares Cabral to Brazil and India, (\u00c7ev.), London: The Hakluyt Society, s. xi;<\/em> Paul Wheatley. (1966). The Golden Khersonese, Reprinted in Pustaka Ilmu, Kuala Lumpur: University of Malaya Press, s. 312; Anthony Reid. (1993). Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce 1450-1680, Volume Two: Expansion and Crisis, Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books, s. 2.<\/p>\n

          [10]<\/a>K. M. Panikkar. (1993). Asia and Western Doninace: A Survey of the Vasco Da Gama Epoch of Asian History 1498-1945<\/em>, Reprint, Kuala Lumpur: The Other Press, p. 21.<\/p>\n

          [11]<\/a>Devleena Ghosh&Stephen Muecke. (2007). \u201cIntroduction: Oceanic Cultural Studies\u201d, (ed.), Devleeana Ghosh&Stephen Muecke, Cultures of Trade. Indian Ocean Exchanges, Newscastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, s. 4.<\/p>\n

          [12]<\/a>Liang Liji. (1996). Hubungan Empayar Melaka-Dinasti Ming Abad ke-15<\/em>, Penerbit Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, s. 14, 15. (Not: \u00c7in resm\u00ee kaynaklar\u0131nda bu ili\u015fkileri konu alan eser Hou Han Shu<\/em>\u2019nun (Kepustakaan Dinasti Han Belakangan<\/em>), 116. Cildi\u2019dir. Bkz.: A.g.e.)<\/p>\n

          [13]<\/a>Schoff, M. Wilfred. (1917). s. 244; Da-Show Huang. (1968). \u201cAn Outline of China\u2019s Contact With South India in The Early Fifteenth Century\u201d, (ed.), R. E. Asher, Proceedings of the Second International Conference Seminar of Tamil Studies<\/em>, January, Madras: International Association of Tamil Research, s. 365. (Not: Rapih Hsuan Chuang, 607 y\u0131l\u0131nda Hindistan\u2019a ula\u015ft\u0131 ve 643 y\u0131l\u0131na kadar kadim Budist metinleri \u00fczerinde \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131n\u0131 s\u00fcrd\u00fcrd\u00fc. Bkz.: A.g.e.)<\/p>\n

          [14]<\/a>Henry Yule. (1967). Cathay and The Way Thither: Being a Collection of Medieval Notices of China<\/em>, Vol. 1, (\u00c7ev.: Henry Yule), Hakluyt Society, Kraus Reprint, Millwood-NY, s. 72-3; Himanshu Prabha Ray. (2012). \u201cMaritime Archaeology of the Indian Ocean An Overview\u201d, Tradition and Archaeology: Early Maritime Contacts in the Indian Ocean<\/em>, (ed.), Himanhu Prabha Ray; Jean-Fran\u00e7ois Salles, Singapore: ISEAS, s. 4, 5.<\/p>\n

          [15]<\/a>Arsyad Islam (2017). \u201cThe Civilizational Role of Islam in the Indian Subcontinent: The Delhi Sultanate\u201d, Intellectual Discourse<\/em>, 25: 1, Kuala Lumpur: IIUM Press, s. 105-6. (s. 103-136).<\/p>\n

          [16]<\/a>Om Prakash. (2007). \u201cTrade and Politics in Eighteenth-century Bengal\u201d, The Eighteenth Century in India<\/em>, (ed.), Seema Alavi, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, s. 136. (s. 136-164).<\/p>\n

          [17]<\/a>Om Prakash. (2007). \u201cTrade and Politics in Eighteenth-century Bengal\u201d, The Eighteenth Century in India<\/em>, (ed.), Seema Alavi, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, p. 137. (pp. 136-164).<\/p>\n

          [18]<\/a>Henry Beveridge. (1986). <\/em>\u201cIntroduction\u201d, A Comprehensive History of India: Civil, Military and Social<\/em>, Henry Beveridge, Volume I, Reprinted, New Delhi: Associated Publishing House, s. 3. (s. 1-17).<\/p>\n

          [19]<\/a>Claude Markovits. (2000). A.g.e., s. 34.<\/p>\n

          [20]<\/a>Isthiaq Husain Qureshi. (1966). The Administration of the Mughul Empire<\/em>, Karachi: University of Karachi, s. 1.<\/p>\n

          [21]<\/a>Henry Beveridge. (1986). A.g.e., s. 47.<\/p>\n

          [22]<\/a>Clive Ponting. (2011). s. 373; \u0130sma\u2019il R. Al Faruqi, Lois Lamya Al-Faruqi. (1986). The Cultural Atlas of Islam<\/em>, New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, s. 18-9.<\/p>\n

          [23]<\/a>Arsyad Islam. (2017). \u201cThe Civilizational Role of Islam in the Indian Subcontinent: The Delhi Sultanate\u201d, Intellectual Discourse<\/em>, 25: 1, Kuala Lumpur: IIUM Press, s. 107. (s. 103-136).<\/p>\n

          [24]<\/a>Arsyad Islam. (2017). A.g.m., s. 108.<\/p>\n

          [25]<\/a>Erdo\u011fan Mer\u00e7il. (1996). \u201cGazneliler\u201d, D\u0130A<\/em>, C. 13, s. 480-1.<\/p>\n

          [26]<\/a>Henry Beveridge. (1986). A Comprehensive History of India: Civil, Military and Social<\/em>, Henry Beveridge, Volume I, Reprinted, New Delhi: Associated Publishing House, s. 57-60; D\u0130A, C. 13, s. 481.<\/p>\n

          [27]<\/a>Arsyad Islam (2017). A.g.m., s. 105-7.<\/p>\n

          [28]<\/a>Arsyad Islam. (2017). A.g.m., s. 108-9.<\/p>\n

          [29]<\/a>Sunil Kumar. (2014). \u201cAn Inconvenient Heritage: The Central Asian Background of the Delhi Sultanate\u201d, Asian Encounters: Exploring Connected Histories<\/em>, (ed.), Upinder Singh; Parul Pandya Dhar, Oxford: Oxford University Press, s. 87-8.<\/p>\n

          [30]<\/a>Clive Ponting. (2011). A.g.e., 373-4; Azmi \u00d6zcan. (1998). D\u0130A<\/em>, C. 18, s. 76, 86.<\/p>\n

          [31]<\/a>R. W. Frazer. (1918). British India: The Story of the Nations<\/em>, New York: G. P. Putnam\u2019s Sons, s. 58-9.<\/p>\n

          [32]<\/a>Isthiaq Husain Qureshi. (1966). A.g.e., s. 6; Sunil Kumar. (2014). A.g.e., s. 87.<\/p>\n

          [33]<\/a>Arsyad Islam (2017). A.g.m, s. 113.<\/p>\n

          [34]<\/a>Arsyad Islam. (2017). A.g.m, s. 114; Kaushik Roy. (2013). A.g.e., s. 81; Enver Konuk\u00e7u. (1991), \u201cBab\u00fcr\u201d, D\u0130A<\/em>, Cilt 4, \u0130stanbul: T\u00fcrkiye Diyanet Vakf\u0131 \u0130slam Ansiklopedisi, s. 395.<\/p>\n

          [35]<\/a>Azmi \u00d6zcan; A. Engin Beksa\u00e7 (1998). \u201cHindistan\u201d, D\u0130A<\/em>, C. 18., s. 77, 103.<\/p>\n

          [36]<\/a>Arsyad Islam. (2017). A.g.e., s. 109, 111.<\/p>\n

          [37]<\/a>Claude Markovits. (2000). A.g.e., s. 32, 34.<\/p>\n

          [38]<\/a>Isthiaq Husain Qureshi. (1966). A.g.e., s. 4.<\/p>\n

          [39]<\/a>Arsyad Islam. (2017). A.g.e., s. 104.<\/p>\n

          [40]<\/a>Henry Beveridge. (1986). <\/em>\u201cIntroduction\u201d, A Comprehensive History of India: Civil, Military and Social<\/em>, Henry Beveridge, Volume I, Reprinted, New Delhi: Associated Publishing House, p. 3. (s. 1-17); Y\u0131lmaz \u00d6ztuna. (1990). Devletler ve Hanedanlar: \u0130lk \u00c7a\u011f ve Asya-Afrika Devletleri<\/em>, Cilt 3, K\u00fclt\u00fcr Bakanl\u0131\u011f\u0131, Ankara: Ba\u015fbakanl\u0131k Yay\u0131nevi, s. 280.<\/p>\n

          [41]<\/a>Claude Markovits. (2000). A.g.e., s. 36.<\/p>\n

          [42]<\/a>Muzaffar Alam; Sanjay Subrahmanyam. (2000). \u201cIntroduction\u201d, The Mughal State: 1526-1750<\/em>, (ed.), Muzaffar Alam; Sanjay Subrahmanyam, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, s. 2, 5, 6. (s. 1-71); Isthiaq Husain Qureshi. (1966). A.g.e., s. 3.<\/p>\n

          [43]<\/a>Isthiaq Husain Qureshi. (1966). The Administration of the Mughul Empire<\/em>, Karachi: University of Karachi, s. 6.<\/p>\n

          [44]<\/a>R. W. Frazer. (1918). A.g.e., s. 59, 62.<\/p>\n

          [45]<\/a>Isthiaq Husain Qureshi. (1966). A.g.e., s. 2-3.<\/p>\n

          [46]<\/a>Isthiaq Husain Qureshi. (1966). A.g.e., s. 5.<\/p>\n

          [47]<\/a>Isthiaq Husain Qureshi. (1966). A.g.e., s. 6.<\/p>\n

          [48]<\/a>Lawrence James. (1998). Raj: The Making and Unmaking of British India<\/em>, New York: St. Martin\u2019s Press, First US Edition, s. 6.<\/p>\n

          [49]<\/a>Lawrence James. (1998). A.g.e., s. 8, 9.<\/p>\n

          [50]<\/a>Kaushik Roy. (2013). A.g.e., s. 82.<\/p>\n

          [51]<\/a>Lawrence James. (1998). A.g.e., s. 5.<\/p>\n

          [52]<\/a>Falih R\u0131fk\u0131 Atay. (1970). Gezerek G\u00f6rd\u00fcklerim<\/em>, Birinci Bas\u0131l\u0131\u015f, \u0130stanbul: Milli E\u011fitim Bas\u0131mevi, s. 97.<\/p>\n

          [53]<\/a>Waterstone, Richard. (1995). India<\/em>, London: Macmillan, s. 144.<\/p>\n

          [54]<\/a>Falih R\u0131fk\u0131 Atay. (1970). A.g.e., s. 101.<\/p>\n

          [55]<\/a>Richard C. Foltz. (2001). Mughal India and Central Asia<\/em>, Karachi: Oxford University Press, s. 22, 27.<\/p>\n

          [56]<\/a>Falih R\u0131fk\u0131 Atay. (1970). A.g.e., s. 99.<\/p>\n

          [57]<\/a>Falih R\u0131fk\u0131 Atay. (1970). A.g.e., s. 98.; Mohammad Habib. (2016). Studies in Medieval Indian Polity and Culture: The Delhi Sultanate and Its Times<\/em>, Oxford: Oxford University Press, s. 40; Kaushik Roy. (2013). \u201cFrom the Mamluks to the Mansabdars a Social History of Military Service in South Asia, 1500 to 1650\u201d, (ed.), Erik-Jan Z\u00fcrcher, A Comparative Study of Military Labor 1500-2000<\/em>, Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, s. 81. Bab\u00fcr\u2019\u00fcn babas\u0131n\u0131n Timur\u2019un torunlar\u0131ndan Fergana h\u00fck\u00fcmdarlar\u0131ndan \u00d6mer \u015eeyh, annesinin Cengiz\u2019in torunlar\u0131ndan Yunus Han\u2019\u0131n k\u0131z\u0131 Kutlu\u011f Nigar Han\u0131m oldu\u011fu belirtilir. Bkz.<\/em>: Enver Konuk\u00e7u. (1991), \u201cBab\u00fcr\u201d, D\u0130A<\/em>, Cilt 4, s. 395. \u00d6te yandan, Bab\u00fcr\u2019\u00fcn \u00c7a\u011fatay T\u00fcrkleri\u2019nden oldu\u011funa dair bir at\u0131f vard\u0131r. Bkz.<\/em>: Enver Konuk\u00e7u. (1991), \u201cBab\u00fcrl\u00fcler\u201d, D\u0130A<\/em>, Cilt 4, s. 400.<\/p>\n

          [58]<\/a>Lawrence James. (1998). A.g.e., s. 5.<\/p>\n

          [59]<\/a>R. W. Frazer. (1918). A.g.e., s. 64.<\/p>\n

          [60]<\/a>Mohammad Habib. (2016). Studies in Medieval Indian Polity and Culture: The Delhi Sultanate and Its Times, Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 37, 38, 84.<\/p>\n

          [61]<\/a>Arnold, Edwin. (1892). \u201cThe Duty and Destiny of England in India\u201d, The North American Review<\/em>, Vol. 154, No. 423, (Feb.), s. 170-1.<\/p>\n

          [62]<\/a>R. W. Frazer. (1918). A.g.e., s. 68.<\/p>\n

          [63]<\/a>Muzaffar Alam; Sanjay Subrahmanyam. (2000). \u201cIntroduction\u201d, The Mughal State: 1526-1750<\/em>, (ed.), Muzaffar Alam; Sanjay Subrahmanyam, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, s. 2. (s. 1-71).<\/p>\n

          [64]<\/a>Muzaffar Imam. (1987). Role of Muslims in the National Movement (1912-1930)<\/em>, Delhi: Mittal Publications, s. 9.<\/p>\n

          [65]<\/a>Gunnel Cederl\u00f6f. (2014). Founding an Empire on India\u2019s North-Eastern Frontiers 1790-1840: Climate, Commerce and Polity<\/em>, Oxford: Oxford University Press, s. 162-3; Herman Kulke; Dietmar Rothermund. (2001). Hindistan Tarihi<\/em>, (\u00c7ev.: M\u00fcfit G\u00fcnay), Ankara: \u0130mge Kitabevi, s. 381.<\/p>\n

          [66]<\/a>Kaushik Roy. (2006). \u201cIntroduction\u201d, War and Society in Colonial India 1807-1945<\/em>, (ed.), Kaushik Roy, Second Edition, Oxford: Oxford University Press, s. 6.<\/p>\n

          [67]<\/a>J. P. Guha. (1986). \u201cOn Reading Beveridge\u2019s History of India\u201d, A Comprehensive History of India: Civil, Military and Social<\/em>, Henry Beveridge, Volume I, Reprinted, New Delhi: Associated Publishing House, s. xiii. (s. xiii-xxi).<\/p>\n

          [68]<\/a>Belmekki, Belkacem. (2014). \u201cMuslim Separatism in Post-Revolt India: A British Game of Divide et Impera?\u201d, Oriente Moderno<\/em>, 94, s. 113-4; Amar Farooqui. (2000). \u201cFrom Baiza Bai to Lakshmi Bai: The Sindia State in the Early Nineteenth Century and the Roots of 1857\u201d, Issues in Modern Indian History<\/em>, Biswamoy Pati, New Delhi: Popular Prakashan, s. 46.<\/p>\n

          [69]<\/a>Alfred L. P. Dennis. (1910). \u201cThe Indian Problem and Imperial Politics\u201d, The Journal of Race Development<\/em>, Vol. 1, No. 2, (Oct), s. 188; Nick Robins. (2012). The Corporation That Changed the World: How the East India Company Shaped the Modern Multinational<\/em>, London: Pluto Press, s. 4; Kaushik Roy. (2006). A.g.m., s. 10-11; Rudrangshu Mukherjee. (2006). \u201cThe Sepoy Mutinies Revisited\u201d, War and Society in Colonial India 1807-1945<\/em>, (ed.), Kaushik Roy, Second Edition, Oxford: Oxford University Press, s. 114.<\/p>\n

          [70]<\/a>Rudrangshu Mukherjee. (2006). A.g.e., s. 118, 119; Amedeo Maiello. (2003). \u201cSir Sayyid Ahmad Khan and the Caliphate\u201d, Turcica et Islamica<\/em> (Studi in memoria di Aldo Gallotta), Volume I, Universita degli Studi di Napoli \u201cL\u2019Orientale\u201d, Napoli, s. 458.<\/p>\n

          [71]<\/a>John P. Jones. (1910). \u201cThe Present Situation in Inida\u201d, The Journal of Race Development<\/em>, Vol. 1, No. 1, (July), s. 86.<\/p>\n

          [72]<\/a>Herman Kulke; Dietmar Rothermund. (2001). A.g.e., s. 392-3, 397.<\/p>\n

          [73]<\/a>K.M. Panikkar. (1961). The Afro-Asian States and their Problems<\/em>, Third Impression, London: George Allen&Unvin, s. 12.<\/p>\n

          [74]<\/a>B. R. Nanda. (1995). Jawaharlal Nehru: Rebel and Statesman, Delhi: Oxford University Press, s. 181; Herman Kulke; Dietmar Rothermund. (2001). A.g.e., s. 386.<\/p>\n

          [75]<\/a>Stanley Wolpert. (1996). Nehru: A Tryst with Destiny<\/em>, New York: Oxford University Press, s. 35; Imam, Muzaffar. (1987). Role of Muslims in the National Movement (1912-1930)<\/em>, Delhi: Mittal Publications, s. 3.<\/p>\n

          [76]<\/a>Arun Bhattacharjee. (1988). A History of Modern India (1707-1947)<\/em>, Second Revised Edition, New Delhi: Ashish Publishing House, s. 222.<\/p>\n

          [77]<\/a>Mushirul Hasan. (2010). (ed.), \u201cIntroduction\u201d, Nehru\u2019s India: Select Speeches<\/em>, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, s. 2.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

          Giri\u015f D\u00fcnyan\u0131n kadim k\u00fclt\u00fcr ve medeniyetlerine ev sahipli\u011fi yapan Hindistan g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczdeki s\u0131n\u0131rlar\u0131n\u0131n aksine, tarihin erken devirlerinden itibaren s\u0131n\u0131rlar\u0131 bat\u0131da Pakistan\u2019dan ba\u015flay\u0131p do\u011fuda Banglade\u015f\u2019e kuzeyde Himalayalar\u2019dan g\u00fcneyde Sri Lanka\u2019ya kadar uzanan geni\u015f bir co\u011frafyaya tekab\u00fcl ediyordu. Bu nedenledir ki, bu devasa toprak par\u00e7as\u0131 bir k\u0131ta b\u00fcy\u00fckl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcnde kabul edilip \u2018Alt K\u0131ta\u2019 ad\u0131yla an\u0131l\u0131r.[1] Bu \u00e7er\u00e7evede, Indus Nehri\u2019nin […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":2298,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[15],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-2297","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-akademik-makaleler"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/guneydoguasyacalismalari.com\/tr_tr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/2297","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/guneydoguasyacalismalari.com\/tr_tr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/guneydoguasyacalismalari.com\/tr_tr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/guneydoguasyacalismalari.com\/tr_tr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/guneydoguasyacalismalari.com\/tr_tr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=2297"}],"version-history":[{"count":2,"href":"https:\/\/guneydoguasyacalismalari.com\/tr_tr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/2297\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":2755,"href":"https:\/\/guneydoguasyacalismalari.com\/tr_tr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/2297\/revisions\/2755"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/guneydoguasyacalismalari.com\/tr_tr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/2298"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/guneydoguasyacalismalari.com\/tr_tr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=2297"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/guneydoguasyacalismalari.com\/tr_tr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=2297"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/guneydoguasyacalismalari.com\/tr_tr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=2297"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}