{"id":1247,"date":"2013-07-26T12:51:00","date_gmt":"2013-07-26T12:51:00","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/localhost:8080\/ini\/?p=64"},"modified":"2016-10-07T07:42:21","modified_gmt":"2016-10-07T07:42:21","slug":"laosun-dunu-ve-bugunu-laos-past-and-now","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/guneydoguasyacalismalari.com\/tr_tr\/laosun-dunu-ve-bugunu-laos-past-and-now\/","title":{"rendered":"Laos\u2019un D\u00fcn\u00fc ve Bug\u00fcn\u00fc \/ Laos: Past and Now"},"content":{"rendered":"
Mehmet \u00d6zay \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0\u00a026 Temmuz 2013<\/b><\/div>\n
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Laos, one of the three countries in Indo-China, has a relatively small territory which does not have an access to seas. In this context, it makes this country unique among the other regional states. Owing to this reason, it has not much interacted with neither internal nor external folks historically. Even today, the interactions of the larger ethnic group Lao settled in the central and northern parts with the ethnic minorities inhabiting in the mountainous regions, particularly in the border of Viet Nam are problematic. On the other hand, Muslim community is very tiny if compared with the ones in neighbor countries. Laos has a great experience of pre-colonial three native kingdoms territorially divided from each other; reorganization by the hands of the colonial power; collaboration of the Palace circles with the French; civil war; Vietnam War, communist revolution\u2026 Now Laos people wish to forget the dark past and commence a new life. There might be a bright future for them in the context of recent developments in the region, provided that the political elite plays a significant role\u2026<\/b><\/div>\n
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Hint-\u00c7ini\u2019nde bir kara devleti olan Lao veya Laos olarak da adland\u0131r\u0131lan \u201cLao Demokratik Halk Cumhuriyeti\u201d son d\u00f6nemdeki de\u011fi\u015fim\/a\u00e7\u0131l\u0131m politikalar\u0131ndan pay almaya \u00e7al\u0131\u015f\u0131yor. \u00dclke, sahip oldu\u011fu toprak par\u00e7as\u0131 kadar n\u00fcfusu ile de b\u00f6lgenin en az n\u00fcfus yo\u011funlu\u011funa sahip \u00fclkesi say\u0131l\u0131r. Halk\u0131n, %60\u2019a varan \u00f6nemli bir b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcn\u00fc \u201cLao\u201d etnik \u00e7o\u011funlu\u011fu olu\u015fturuyor. N\u00fcfusun geri kalan\u0131n\u0131 ise, yukar\u0131da zikredilen co\u011frafi \u015fartlar\u0131n sonucu olarak \u2018yerli\u2019 aidiyetlerini koruyan ve bu anlamda animist inan\u00e7 sistemine tabi Hmong, Kha ve Kmhmu etnik yap\u0131lar\u0131 te\u015fkil etmektedir. Lao merkez siyasi y\u00f6netiminin bu az\u0131nl\u0131k gruplar\u0131yla ge\u00e7mi\u015fteki etkile\u015fimine a\u015fa\u011f\u0131da de\u011finece\u011fiz.<\/div>\n
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\u00dclkedeki M\u00fcsl\u00fcman unsurlara k\u0131saca g\u00f6z atmakta fayda var. B\u00f6lgede M\u00fcsl\u00fcmanlar\u0131n varl\u0131\u011f\u0131na referans olarak, Frans\u0131zlar\u0131n s\u00f6m\u00fcrge d\u00f6neminde ara i\u015flerde \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131rmak amac\u0131yla getirdi\u011fi Tamil k\u00f6kenliler, Pakistan\u2019l\u0131 k\u00f6kenli Pe\u015ftunlar ile Khmer rejiminden ka\u00e7an Kambo\u00e7yal\u0131 M\u00fcsl\u00fcmanlar\u0131n olu\u015fturdu\u011fu \u00e7ok k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck bir grup mevcuttur. M\u00fcsl\u00fcmanlar\u0131n genel n\u00fcfus i\u00e7erisindeki oran\u0131 ise %1\u2019in alt\u0131nda oldu\u011fu varsay\u0131l\u0131yor. Tabii, Budist \u00e7o\u011funluk i\u00e7inde ya\u015fayan M\u00fcsl\u00fcmanlar denilince akla ayn\u0131 co\u011frafyadaki \u00f6rne\u011fin Tay Budist toplumu i\u00e7erisindeki Patani, Burma Budist toplumundaki Arakan gibi sorunlu b\u00f6lgeler akla geliyor. Tarihsel olarak gerek b\u00f6lge i\u00e7i gerekse Ortado\u011fu-Hindistan eksenli ticaret, sosyal ve dini i\u00e7erikli g\u00f6\u00e7lerin ula\u015ft\u0131\u011f\u0131 noktalar\u0131n liman \u015fehirleri oldu\u011fu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fcld\u00fc\u011f\u00fcnde s\u00f6z konusu bu g\u00f6\u00e7ler vas\u0131tas\u0131yla M\u00fcsl\u00fcmanlar\u0131n bug\u00fcnk\u00fc s\u0131n\u0131rlar\u0131 i\u00e7erisindeki Laos\u2019a gelmediklerini varsaymak m\u00fcmk\u00fcn. Bununla birlikte, \u00c7in\u2019e, Myanmar\u2019a ve Kambo\u00e7ya\u2019ya -k\u0131smen yukar\u0131da de\u011finmi\u015ftik- kom\u015fu olmas\u0131 \u00f6zellikle yirminci y\u00fczy\u0131l boyunca bu \u00fclkelerde M\u00fcsl\u00fcmanlara y\u00f6nelik bask\u0131 ve zul\u00fcmlerden ka\u00e7an baz\u0131 gruplar\u0131n Laos\u2019a yerle\u015fti\u011fi d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fclebilir. Bu noktada, Laos M\u00fcsl\u00fcmanlar\u0131 olarak adland\u0131r\u0131labilecek bir kitleden bahsedilebilirse de k\u00f6kl\u00fc kurumsal yap\u0131lanmalar konusunda di\u011fer \u00e7evre \u00fclkelerine nazaran geli\u015fmeye matuf oldu\u011funu s\u00f6ylenebilir. \u00d6zellikle Myanmar\u2019da M\u00fcsl\u00fcmanlara y\u00f6nelik sald\u0131r\u0131lar\u0131n b\u00f6lge \u00fclkelerinde kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131k bulmas\u0131 gibi bir ihtimal g\u00f6z \u00f6n\u00fcne al\u0131nd\u0131\u011f\u0131nda -ki bunun ipu\u00e7lar\u0131 Malezya ve Endonezya\u2019da ortaya \u00e7\u0131kmaya ba\u015flam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r, Laos M\u00fcsl\u00fcmanlar\u0131n\u0131n kendilerini koruyabilecek bir yap\u0131lanmalar\u0131 s\u00f6z konusu de\u011fildir. \u00d6te yandan, \u00e7ok az bir kitlede olsa, Laos M\u00fcsl\u00fcmanlar\u0131n\u0131n e\u011fitim, sa\u011fl\u0131k, ekonomik yeterlilik gibi alanlarda kendine yeter bir yap\u0131ya kavu\u015fturulmalar\u0131 \u00fczerinde ciddi bir \u015fekilde d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fclmeyi hak ediyor.<\/div>\n
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II. D\u00fcnya Sava\u015f\u0131 hemen \u00f6ncesinde ba\u015flayan s\u00f6m\u00fcrgecilik kar\u015f\u0131t\u0131 e\u011filimler, sava\u015f sonras\u0131n\u0131n; kom\u00fcnist hareketlerin monar\u015fi\/milliyet\u00e7i bloga kar\u015f\u0131 m\u00fccadeleleri; 20. y\u00fczy\u0131l ortalar\u0131nda ba\u015fg\u00f6steren Hint-\u00c7ini sava\u015flar\u0131 ve Bat\u0131l\u0131 unsurlar ve \u00c7in\u2019in m\u00fcdahaleleri, Sovyet Rusya\u2019n\u0131n \u00e7\u00f6k\u00fc\u015f\u00fc ve \u00c7in\u2019in liberal ekonomiye ge\u00e7i\u015fi vb. dikkate al\u0131nd\u0131\u011f\u0131nda, ayn\u0131 zamanda bir ASEAN \u00fcyesi de olan Laos\u2019un b\u00f6lgenin yeniden \u015fekillenmekte olan jeo-stratejik ve ekonomik s\u00fcre\u00e7lerinden ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131z kalmayaca\u011f\u0131 kesin. Hat\u0131rlatma bab\u0131nda dikkat \u00e7ekilen bu ve benzeri hususlar 1965 y\u0131l\u0131nda b\u00f6lgeye gelen ve bir daha da \u00e7\u0131k(a)mayan Lao dilbilimcisi James R. Chamberlain\u2019\u0131n ifadesiyle daha o d\u00f6nemlerde, bir kasaba g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fcnde olmakla birlikte, d\u00fcnyan\u0131n bat\u0131s\u0131 ile do\u011fusundan pek \u00e7ok ki\u015finin \u2018cirit att\u0131\u011f\u0131\u2019 bir beldedir ba\u015fkent Vientiane. Laos\u2019u bu nedenle \u00f6nemsemekte d\u00fcn\u00fc, bug\u00fcn\u00fcn\u00fc anlayarak gelece\u011fe projeksiyon yapman\u0131n faydal\u0131 oldu\u011funa \u015f\u00fcphe yok.<\/div>\n
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Mevcut duruma ge\u00e7meden \u00f6nce k\u0131saca ge\u00e7mi\u015fte neler olup bitti\u011fine bakmakta fayda var. Frans\u0131z s\u00f6m\u00fcrgecili\u011finin 17. y\u00fczy\u0131l sonlar\u0131nda ba\u015flatt\u0131\u011f\u0131 Hint-\u00c7ini\u2019ne (l\u2019Indochine Fran\u00e7aise, ki bu tan\u0131mlama daha sonra l\u2019Union indochinoise\u2019e evrilecektir) \u00f6zellikle Frans\u0131z Katolik misyonerleri koruma ad\u0131na ba\u015flatt\u0131\u011f\u0131 ard\u0131ndan 19. y\u00fczy\u0131lda ekonomik vecheye b\u00fcr\u00fcnen n\u00fcfuz \u00e7abalar\u0131yla k\u0131yasland\u0131\u011f\u0131nda, g\u00f6rece ge\u00e7 bir tarihte, yani 1893\u2019de Fransa\u2019n\u0131n n\u00fcfuzu alt\u0131na giren bu topraklar, o d\u00f6nem s\u00f6z konusu co\u011frafyada varl\u0131k s\u00fcren \u00fc\u00e7 farkl\u0131 Lao Krall\u0131\u011f\u0131\u2019n\u0131n elbette sanc\u0131l\u0131 olan birle\u015fme s\u00fcrecine tan\u0131kl\u0131k etmi\u015ftir. Sanc\u0131l\u0131 diyoruz \u00e7\u00fcnk\u00fc, bu \u00fc\u00e7 farkl\u0131 monar\u015finin \u2018gev\u015fek\u2019 teritoryal egemenliklerinin ortadan kald\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131, yeni \u2018mutlak\u2019 s\u0131n\u0131rlar\u0131n konulmas\u0131, modern b\u00fcrokratik idari mekanizman\u0131n g\u00fcndeme getirilmesi vb. \u00f6zellikle ula\u015f\u0131m a\u011f\u0131n\u0131n olduk\u00e7a s\u0131n\u0131rl\u0131 oldu\u011fu bu co\u011frafyada b\u00fcy\u00fck bir sorundu. \u00d6te yandan, bu merkez g\u00fc\u00e7lerle da\u011fl\u0131k b\u00f6lgelerdeki \u00e7e\u015fitli etnik unsurlar aras\u0131ndaki dini\/k\u00fclt\u00fcrel, ekolojik, siyasal ve co\u011frafi farkl\u0131l\u0131klar\u0131n \u00e7e\u015fitli s\u00fcre\u00e7lerle a\u015f\u0131lma \u00e7abas\u0131 da ba\u015fl\u0131 ba\u015f\u0131na bir konudur. \u00d6yle ki, merkez g\u00fc\u00e7leri te\u015fkil eden bu krall\u0131klarla, farkl\u0131 dini-k\u00fclt\u00fcrel ba\u011flamlarda ya\u015fayan etnik unsurlar\u0131n varl\u0131\u011f\u0131 ve bunlarla girilen ili\u015fkiler de sadece maddi s\u0131n\u0131rlar\u0131n de\u011fil manevi, yani bir merkezi-devlet olgusu etraf\u0131nda yeniden \u015fekillendirilmek zorunda kal\u0131nm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. \u00c7\u00fcnk\u00fc s\u00f6m\u00fcrge \u00f6ncesi d\u00f6nemde \u00f6rne\u011fin kend
\ni s\u0131n\u0131rlar\u0131n\u0131n ruhlar taraf\u0131ndan korundu\u011funa inanan ve bu anlamda \u2018otonom\u2019 bir ya\u015fam s\u00fcren da\u011fl\u0131k b\u00f6lgelerde ya\u015fayan etnik az\u0131nl\u0131klar ile, merkezde saray \u00e7evresindeki yap\u0131n\u0131n da\u011fl\u0131k b\u00f6lgelerdeki unsurlar\u0131 \u2018asimile etme\u2019 gibi bir \u00e7aba i\u00e7erisinde olmamas\u0131 s\u00f6m\u00fcrge yap\u0131s\u0131n\u0131n yeni format\u0131na ge\u00e7i\u015fi zorunlu ve de ayn\u0131 zamanda sanc\u0131l\u0131 k\u0131l\u0131yordu.<\/div>\n
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Tabii, bu sorunun bug\u00fcne kadar ne \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fclebildi\u011fi tart\u0131\u015fmal\u0131ysa da, nihayetinde Laos\u2019u Laos yapan g\u00fc\u00e7lerin belirledi\u011fi s\u0131n\u0131rlar\u0131n tan\u0131n\u0131rl\u0131\u011f\u0131 b\u00f6yle bir \u00fclkeyi ortaya \u00e7\u0131karm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Nihayetinde bu s\u00fcre\u00e7, 20. y\u00fczy\u0131l ortalar\u0131nda kuzey b\u00f6lgesinde \u00f6ne \u00e7\u0131kan krall\u0131k \u201cLuan Phrabang\u201d monar\u015fisi \u00e7at\u0131s\u0131 alt\u0131nda birle\u015ferek tamamlanabilmi\u015ftir. S\u00f6m\u00fcrge s\u00fcreci bir yandan teritoryal s\u0131n\u0131rlar\u0131 olu\u015ftururken, ayn\u0131 zamanda II. D\u00fcnya Sava\u015f\u0131 sonras\u0131n\u0131n ulus devletine evrilecek olan \u2018Laos\u2019 ad\u0131n\u0131n Frans\u0131zlarca verildi\u011fine tan\u0131k olundu.<\/div>\n
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Tabii bu noktada, s\u00f6m\u00fcrgeci g\u00fc\u00e7lerin \u2018yerlileri medenile\u015ftirme\u2019 s\u00fcre\u00e7lerinde idari yap\u0131lanman\u0131n \u00f6ncelikli \u00f6nem arz etmesi nedeniyle yeni s\u0131n\u0131rlar\u0131na ula\u015fan Luan Phrabang monar\u015fisi y\u00f6netimde saray ve \u00e7evresinin \u201cFrans\u0131z e\u011fitimli\u201d ve modernle\u015fmede kurtar\u0131c\u0131 rol\u00fc oynayan kadrolar\u0131na Ba\u015fbakanl\u0131k, Bakanl\u0131k vd. makamlarda g\u00f6rev vermi\u015ftir. Sava\u015f sonras\u0131n\u0131n \u00e7etin \u015fartlar\u0131nda \u2018Lao\u2019 etnik \u00e7o\u011funlu\u011fu etraf\u0131nda \u015fekillenerek, \u2018yeni bir ulus\u2019 olarak do\u011fan Laos\u2019un ayaklar\u0131 \u00fczerinde duramayaca\u011f\u0131n\u0131 g\u00f6ren saray ve \u00e7evresi, o d\u00f6nem t\u00fcm b\u00f6lgeyi saran \u2018ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131zl\u0131k \u00fclk\u00fcs\u00fcn\u00fc\u2019 prati\u011fe ge\u00e7irme arzular\u0131na ra\u011fmen, \u00e7areyi \u201cge\u00e7ici de olsa\u201d Frans\u0131z korumac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131nda\/mandac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131nda bulmay\u0131 ye\u011flemi\u015ftir. Bu korumac\u0131l\u0131k\/mandac\u0131l\u0131k talebi kar\u015f\u0131s\u0131nda Fransa\u2019n\u0131n siyasi varl\u0131\u011f\u0131 1955 y\u0131l\u0131na kadar s\u00fcrm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr. Bu mandac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131 ye\u011fleme i\u015finin gene y\u00f6netim elitinin tekelinde ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirildi\u011fi malum. Neden o d\u00f6nem y\u00fckselen bir g\u00fc\u00e7 olarak Amerika de\u011fil de, imparatorluk d\u00f6neminden \u00e7ok \u015fey kaybetmi\u015f olan Fransa oldu\u011fu da sorgulanabilir elbette. Tabii burada James Chamberlain\u2019dan esinlenerek \u015funu da s\u00f6ylemeden ge\u00e7meyelim. Saray ve \u00e7evresinin ald\u0131\u011f\u0131 Frans\u0131z e\u011fitimi onlar\u0131 \u2018ayd\u0131nlanman\u0131n\u2019 be\u015fi\u011fi bir medeniyete \u015fu veya bu \u015fekilde eklemlenmelerine neden olmu\u015ftu. Bu birikim, y\u00f6netim tabakas\u0131n\u0131n \u00fclkeyi modernle\u015ftirme projelerinde ortaya koyduklar\u0131 \u2018ba\u015far\u0131n\u0131n\u2019 arka pl\u00e2n\u0131n\u0131 olu\u015fturuyordu hi\u00e7 ku\u015fkusuz. Ayd\u0131nlanma i\u015finin \u00f6nemli bir boyutunun da gene 1960\u2019l\u0131 ve 1970\u2019li y\u0131llarda ba\u015fkent Vientiane\u2019daki \u2013\u201cSao Khong, Mithason, Pai Nam, Sangkhomkhadi, Bulletin des Amis du Royaume Lao\u201d vb., kayda de\u011fer kitap ve dergi yay\u0131nc\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131nda bulmak m\u00fcmk\u00fcn. Bu da bize, Frans\u0131z e\u011fitiminin saray ailesiyle ve onlar\u0131n y\u00f6netimsel etkile\u015fimleriyle s\u0131n\u0131rl\u0131 kalmad\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131, s\u00f6zl\u00fc bir toplum \u00f6zelli\u011fi sergileyen Lao toplumunda gerek \u00fclke i\u00e7erisinde gerekse Avrupa\u2019da e\u011fitim olanaklar\u0131na kavu\u015fan az\u0131nl\u0131k da olsa bir kitlenin \u00f6nc\u00fcl\u00fc\u011f\u00fcnde s\u00f6zl\u00fcden yaz\u0131l\u0131ya kayan g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc bir Lao k\u00fclt\u00fcr\u00fcn\u00fcn yeniden \u015fekillendirilmekte oldu\u011funu g\u00f6r\u00fcr\u00fcz.<\/div>\n
Yukar\u0131da dile getirdi\u011fimiz \u2018Frans\u0131z korumac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131\/mandac\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131\u2019 ba\u011flam\u0131ndaki se\u00e7im, asl\u0131nda bir ba\u015fka alternatif yap\u0131lanman\u0131n yolunu a\u00e7acakt\u0131r. O da art\u0131k b\u00f6lgede hi\u00e7bir \u015fekilde Bat\u0131l\u0131 y\u00fcz\u00fc g\u00f6rmek istemeyen kom\u00fcnist hareketlerin Laos\u2019daki uzant\u0131s\u0131 \u201cViet-Minh\u201din siyasi bir g\u00fc\u00e7 olarak ortaya \u00e7\u0131kmas\u0131 olmu\u015ftur. Bu yap\u0131, ad\u0131ndan da anla\u015f\u0131laca\u011f\u0131 \u00fczere Vietnam tandansl\u0131 bir harekettir. Ancak unutulmamas\u0131 gereken bir \u015fey var ki, o da bu hareketin d\u0131\u015fardan ithal g\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fc verse de insan kaynaklar\u0131 noktas\u0131nda, \u00f6zellikle \u2018Lao\u2019 topraklar\u0131n\u0131n orta ve g\u00fcneyinde \u00f6nemli bir toplum kesiminde ya\u015fam s\u00fcren Vietnam as\u0131ll\u0131lar\u0131n ba\u015fat rol oynad\u0131\u011f\u0131d\u0131r. Viet-Minh hareketinin g\u00fc\u00e7 kazanmas\u0131nda da b\u00f6ylesi bir etnik temelin varl\u0131\u011f\u0131 g\u00f6z ard\u0131 edilmemelidir. \u00dcst\u00fcne \u00fcstl\u00fck da\u011fl\u0131k kesimlerde ya\u015fayan etnik az\u0131nl\u0131klar Frans\u0131z y\u00f6netiminin Lao etnisitesini \u00f6ncelleyen yakla\u015f\u0131m\u0131 kar\u015f\u0131s\u0131nda \u2018ayr\u0131mc\u0131l\u0131\u011fa\u2019 tabi tutulmas\u0131n\u0131n da komunist harekete deste\u011fin nedenleri aras\u0131nda oldu\u011fu unutulmamal\u0131d\u0131r. Bununla birlikte, bu s\u00fcre\u00e7te saraya mensup bir isim Souphanouyong da kom\u00fcnist harekete ard\u0131ndan kurulacak partiye \u00fcye olarak saray ve \u00e7evresinde b\u00fcy\u00fck \u015fa\u015fk\u0131nl\u0131\u011fa yol a\u00e7m\u0131\u015ft\u0131.<\/div>\n
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Komunist harekete devam etmeden \u00f6nce Budizme dair birka\u00e7 s\u00f6ylemekte fayda var. Bu s\u00fcre\u00e7te, b\u00f6lge halklar\u0131n\u0131n kahir ekseriyetinin \u2013nominal anlamda da olsa- ba\u011fl\u0131 oldu\u011fu Budizmin birle\u015ftirici bir dini\/k\u00fclt\u00fcrel yap\u0131 olu\u015fturamad\u0131\u011f\u0131, aksine Budizm her bir co\u011frafyada, ulus-devlet insa\u015f\u0131 s\u00fcrecinde etnik \u00e7o\u011funlu\u011fa dayal\u0131 milliyet\u00e7ili\u011fi destekleyen bir aparata d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015fm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr. Bu anlamda, siyasi bir model sun\/a\/mayan Budizmle modern d\u00f6nemde ortaya \u00e7\u0131kan milliyet\u00e7iliklerin birle\u015fmesi bir anakronik durum olu\u015ftursa da sosyo-siyasi i\u015flevselli\u011fi konusunda kimsenin \u015f\u00fcphesi yoktur herhalde. Bu durum, kendisini Laos\u2019ta da ortaya koymu\u015f ve 1946 y\u0131l\u0131ndan itibaren monar\u015fi, 19. y\u00fczy\u0131ldaki rol\u00fcn\u00fc b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00f6l\u00e7\u00fcde yitirip sembolik bir yap\u0131ya evrilirken, biri dini alanda Budizm ve di\u011feri siyasi alanda milliyet\u00e7ilikle kayna\u015fm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bu milliyet\u00e7i yap\u0131, yukar\u0131da de\u011findi\u011fimiz \u00fczere saray ve \u00e7evresinin varl\u0131\u011f\u0131yla \u00fclke idari mekanizmas\u0131nda kendini g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc bir \u015fekilde hissettirmi\u015ftir. Bu s\u00fcrecin belki kendi halinde i\u015fleyip farkl\u0131l\u0131klar\u0131n bir t\u00fcr \u2018zaman a\u015f\u0131m\u0131na\u2019 u\u011frayaca\u011f\u0131 tahmin edilebilir. Ancak Laos i\u00e7 politikas\u0131 ve toplum yap\u0131s\u0131n\u0131n \u015fekillenmesi kendi ba\u015f\u0131na b\u0131rak\u0131lmam\u0131\u015ft\u0131r.<\/div>\n
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Bununla, tabii ki Hint-\u00c7ini\u2019ndeki sivil sava\u015flar\u0131 ve \u00f6zellikle Vietnam Sava\u015f\u0131 s\u00fcre\u00e7lerini kastediyoruz. Lao etnik kimli\u011fi \u00fczerinden siyasi m\u00fccadeleyi y\u00fcr\u00fcten \u2018merkez\u2019 Lao milliyet\u00e7i yap\u0131lanmas\u0131yla, \u00fclkenin do\u011fusunda \u00e7e\u015fitli etnik az\u0131nl\u0131klar\u0131n ya\u015fam s\u00fcrd\u00fc\u011f\u00fc Vietnam s\u0131n\u0131r\u0131ndaki da\u011fl\u0131k b\u00f6lgelerde ortaya \u00e7\u0131kan komunist hareket \u00fclkede on y\u0131llarca s\u00fcren i\u00e7 sava\u015f ortam\u0131na neden olmu\u015ftur. Nihayetinde, Vietnam\u2019\u0131n destekledi\u011fi kom\u00fcnist gruplar\u0131n m\u00fccadelesi, da\u011fl\u0131k b\u00f6lgelerdeki etnik az\u0131nl\u0131klar i\u00e7in yeni bir siyasi bilin\u00e7lenme s\u00fcrecine neden olmu\u015ftur. Bu az\u0131nl\u0131klar, ayn\u0131 zamanda komunist m\u00fccadelenin \u00f6rg\u00fctl\u00fc yap\u0131la\u015fmas\u0131 i\u00e7erisinde yer alan kadrolar\u0131n varl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 s\u00fcrd\u00fcrmelerine olanak tan\u0131yacak maddi ve manevi kaynaklar\u0131 temin etmesiyle de \u00f6nem arz ediyordu. Nihayetinde, Laos\u2019da 2-3 Aral\u0131k 1975 tarihlerinde \u2018Pathet Lao\u2019 ad\u0131 verilen kom\u00fcnist Parti Kongresi, bizzat m\u00fcstakbel kral Vong Savang\u2019\u0131n krall\u0131\u011f\u0131n resmen \u00fclke y\u00f6netiminden \u00e7ekildi\u011fini il\u00e2n etmesiyle, yani bir anlamda \u2018yumu\u015fak devrimin\u2019 ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirmesine neden olacak kadar \u00f6nemli siyasal sonu\u00e7lar do\u011fmu\u015ftur. Bu s\u00fcre\u00e7 asl\u0131nda 16. y\u00fczy\u0131ldan itibaren varl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 s\u00fcrd\u00fcren monar\u015finin sonu anlam\u0131na geliyordu. Burada ilgin\u00e7 olan husus, t\u0131pk\u0131 \u0130ngilizlerin Malaya\u2019da \u00e7ok \u00f6nceden hayata ge\u00e7irdikleri \u00fczere, Frans\u0131zlar\u0131n da monar\u015fiyi t\u00fcm\u00fcyle ortadan kald\u0131rmak yerine, siyasi egemenli\u011fi ellerinden al\u0131p, yerine sadece \u2018dini\/rit\u00fcelci\u2019 ya\u015fam\u0131n koruyucusu s\u0131fat\u0131n\u0131 bah\u015fetmesi olmu\u015ftur. Burada \u0130ngilizlerin Frans\u0131zlar\u0131n uygulamas\u0131nda bir model te\u015fkil etti\u011fini s\u00f6yleyebilir miyiz? \u00d6te yandan, bu s\u00fcre\u00e7, \u00f6rne\u011fin Tayland monar\u015fisinin 1932\u2019deki \u201ck\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131n\u0131n\u201d ard\u0131ndan ya\u015fanan siyasal alandaki ayr\u0131\u015fmalara ve halk nezdindeki \u2018manevi\u2019 karma\u015faya yol a\u00e7mam\u0131\u015f, ak
\nsine b\u00f6lge halk\u0131n\u0131n dini\/mitik kar\u0131\u015f\u0131m\u0131 bir sayg\u0131 besledi\u011fi monar\u015fiye toplumsal rasyonel bir i\u015flerlik bah\u015fedilmi\u015ftir.<\/div>\n
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Laos, bar\u0131\u015f zamanlar\u0131nda Tayland ve Vietnam\u2019\u0131n birbiriyle siyasi rekabete varan kar\u015f\u0131la\u015fmalar\u0131na konu olmu\u015ftur. Bu siyasi n\u00fcfuz\/etkile\u015fimin, \u00f6zellikle II. D\u00fcnya Sava\u015f\u0131 sonras\u0131n\u0131n etnik \u00e7o\u011funluk\u00e7u milliyet\u00e7ili\u011fe dayal\u0131 kom\u00fcnist ideolojilerin ye\u015ferdi\u011fi ve buna kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131k Bat\u0131l\u0131 g\u00fc\u00e7lerin, merkezinde monar\u015finin yer ald\u0131\u011f\u0131 muhalefeti desteklemesiyle ortaya \u00e7\u0131kan sivil sava\u015flar b\u00f6lge halklar\u0131n\u0131n toplumsal haf\u0131zas\u0131nda silinmesi zor izler b\u0131rakm\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Vietnam Sava\u015f\u0131 s\u00fcreci gibi \u00e7at\u0131\u015fma d\u00f6nemlerinde Laos, Vietnam\u2019\u0131n \u2018arka bah\u00e7esi\u2019 haline gelmi\u015fti. Bununla birlikte, ABD\u2019nin de bir kar\u015f\u0131 giri\u015fimi oldu\u011fu vakidir. Bu \u00e7er\u00e7evede, sava\u015f s\u00fcresince Amerika birliklerince Vietnam topraklar\u0131na s\u00fcr\u00fclen Laos topraklar\u0131nda ya\u015fayan -aralar\u0131nda \u2018\u00e7ocuk sava\u015f\u00e7\u0131lar\u0131n\u2019 -ki ya\u015flar\u0131 8\u2019e kadar olanlar\u0131n da bulundu\u011fu-\u00a0 altm\u0131\u015f bini bulan \u2018Hmong\u2019 etnik grubuna mensup kitle Amerikan silahlar\u0131yla donand\u0131r\u0131lm\u0131\u015ft\u0131. \u00d6yle ki, ormanlarda saklanan bu sivil sava\u015f\u00e7\u0131lar\u0131 d\u0131\u015f d\u00fcnyayla temaslar\u0131n\u0131n kesilmesiyle Vietnam Sava\u015f\u0131 sona erse de, bundan ancak on be\u015f y\u0131l sonra gibi uzun bir s\u00fcre varl\u0131klar\u0131 ke\u015ffedilmi\u015fti. \u201cAfyon\u201d meselesine de de\u011finmekte fayda var. B\u00f6lgenin\u00a0 \u2018k\u00fclt\u00fcrel norm\u2019u kabul edilen afyon yeti\u015ftiricili\u011fi ve t\u00fckeminin sava\u015f d\u00f6neminde Amerikan \u2018varl\u0131\u011f\u0131\u2019 sayesinde uluslararas\u0131 \u2018metaya\u2019 d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcr\u00fcld\u00fc\u011f\u00fc ifade edilmektedir.<\/div>\n
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Laos\u2019da ya\u015fanan kom\u00fcnist devrim de t\u0131pk\u0131 yar\u0131m y\u00fczy\u0131l \u00f6ncesinin monar\u015fisi gibi kendi ayaklar\u0131 \u00fczerinde duramam\u0131\u015f, Sovyetler Birli\u011fi ve \u00c7in\u2019de ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirilen ekonomik liberalizme eklenlenmek suretiyle 1980\u2019li y\u0131llar\u0131n ortalar\u0131ndan itibaren kap\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131 uluslararas\u0131 sermayeye a\u00e7m\u0131\u015ft\u0131r. Bu d\u00f6nem, t\u0131pk\u0131 Malezya\u2019da \u201cYeni Ekonomi Politikas\u0131\u201dn\u0131n hayata ge\u00e7irilmesine benzer \u015fekilde Laos\u2019da da \u201cYeni Ekonomi Mekanizmas\u0131\u201d ad\u0131yla bir program y\u00fcr\u00fcrl\u00fc\u011fe konulmu\u015ftur. Yeni d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcnce (chin thanakaan mai) olarak da adland\u0131r\u0131lan bu s\u00fcre\u00e7 ekonomi alan\u0131nda paradigm de\u011fi\u015fimine, yani devlet-kontrol\u00fcnden piyasa-y\u00f6nelimli bir ekonomik yap\u0131ya ge\u00e7i\u015f s\u00f6z konusu olmu\u015ftur. Bu noktada, hi\u00e7 ku\u015fku yok ki, ba\u015fka \u00fclkelerde de benzerleri g\u00f6r\u00fclen bu ekonomi a\u00e7\u0131l\u0131mlar\u0131, Hint-\u00c7ini\u2019ndeki di\u011fer \u00fclkeler gibi Laos\u2019u da i\u00e7ine alacak \u015fekilde, Bat\u0131 g\u00fc\u00e7 odaklar\u0131nca projelendirilen d\u00f6nemin k\u00fcresel neo-liberal y\u00f6nelimlerine eklemlenme amac\u0131 ta\u015f\u0131yordu. Malezya \u00f6rne\u011finden devam edersek, Malay Yar\u0131madas\u0131\u2019nda kalk\u0131nma hamlesi \u2018uygun ad\u0131m\u2019 ilerlerken, bunun Laos\u2019da ger\u00e7ekle\u015fmemesinin nedeni olarak siyasi ve idari yetkenin halen politb\u00fcro\u2019nun, yani Komunist Partisi\u2019nin (Laos Devrimci Halk Partisi) tekelinde olmas\u0131 ve bunun getirdi\u011fi bir dizi s\u0131k\u0131nt\u0131lar oldu\u011fu ileri s\u00fcr\u00fclebilir. Bu durum, 1980\u2019lerde ba\u015flayan ekonomide reform s\u00fcrecinin siyasi yans\u0131malar\u0131n\u0131n olmad\u0131\u011f\u0131 yorumlar\u0131n\u0131 g\u00fc\u00e7lendiriyor. Laos\u2019un s\u0131n\u0131rlar\u0131n\u0131 a\u00e7an bir di\u011fer geli\u015fme ASEAN \u00fcyeli\u011fi olmu\u015ftur. 1992 y\u0131l\u0131nda g\u00f6zlemi s\u0131fat\u0131yla ba\u015flad\u0131\u011f\u0131 i\u015fbirli\u011fini 23 Temmuz 1997\u2019da tam \u00fcyeli\u011finin kabul edilmesiyle \u00f6nemli bir a\u015fama katetmi\u015ftir.<\/div>\n
Bug\u00fcn Laos nerede duruyor?<\/div>\n
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B\u00f6lgenin a\u00e7\u0131k denizlere ba\u011flant\u0131s\u0131 olmayan tek \u00fclkesi konumundaki Laos kom\u015fu \u00fclkelerin, \u00f6zellikle nehirler ve deniz vas\u0131tas\u0131yla sa\u011flanan ula\u015f\u0131m a\u011f\u0131ndan sa\u011flad\u0131\u011f\u0131 avantajlardan yoksundur. D\u0131\u015f unsurlarla etkile\u015fimine olanak tan\u0131mayan bu \u00f6zelli\u011finin \u00f6tesinde, g\u00f6rece k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck bir co\u011frafya olmakla birlikte, da\u011fl\u0131k ve kesif ormanl\u0131k alanlarla kapl\u0131 olmas\u0131 \u00fclke i\u00e7erisinde ve s\u0131n\u0131r boylar\u0131nda ya\u015fayan \u00e7e\u015fitli yerli halklar\u0131n birbiriyle temas\u0131n\u0131 zorla\u015ft\u0131ran \u00f6nemli fakt\u00f6rlerdendir. Bu anlamda, kendi i\u00e7ine kapal\u0131 bir yap\u0131dan, \u00f6zellikle de \u00e7eltik tar\u0131m\u0131na elveri\u015fli geni\u015f ovalarda ya\u015fayan Lao etnik \u00e7o\u011funlu\u011fu ile y\u00fckseltilerde hayat s\u00fcren etnik az\u0131nl\u0131klar aras\u0131nda bir ayr\u0131\u015fmadan bahsedilebilir. S\u00f6m\u00fcrge \u00f6ncesi d\u00f6nemde s\u0131n\u0131rl\u0131 ancak bar\u0131\u015f ortam\u0131nda s\u00fcrd\u00fcr\u00fclen ili\u015fkilerin Frans\u0131zlar d\u00f6neminde yeniden yap\u0131land\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131 ile do\u011fan s\u0131k\u0131nt\u0131lardan kurtulunabilmi\u015f de\u011fil. Bununla birlikte, s\u00f6z konusu bu etkile\u015fimin g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczde, \u00fclkenin bir yandan kalk\u0131nma kalk\u0131nma, \u00f6te yandan farkl\u0131 etnik yap\u0131larla birlikte var olma s\u00fcrecinde g\u00f6z ard\u0131 edilemeyecek bir \u00f6neme sahip oldu\u011funa \u015f\u00fcphe yok.<\/div>\n
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Bu dezavantajlar\u0131na ra\u011fmen, sahip oldu\u011fu ve hen\u00fcz ke\u015ffedilmeyi bekleyen kaynaklar\u0131 nedeniyle g\u00fc\u00e7 odaklar\u0131n\u0131n g\u00f6z ard\u0131 edemeyece\u011fi bir co\u011frafya. Hatta yabanc\u0131 yat\u0131r\u0131mc\u0131lar noktas\u0131nda alt yap\u0131 \u00e7al\u0131\u015fmalar\u0131 noktas\u0131nda bir cazibe merkezi oldu\u011funu s\u00f6ylemek bile m\u00fcmk\u00fcn. Bu noktada \u00c7in\u2019in \u2018at\u0131l\u0131mc\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131\u2019 dikkat \u00e7ekiyor. Mekong Nehri\u2019nin yan\u0131 ba\u015f\u0131ndaki Bokeo \u015fehrine ba\u011fl\u0131 Ton Pheung\u2019de tamam\u0131yla \u00c7in idaresine verilmi\u015f Serbest Ticaret B\u00f6lgesi bunun g\u00f6stergelerinden biri. Buras\u0131 ticaret merkezi olman\u0131n yan\u0131 s\u0131ra, her t\u00fcr\u00fcnden e\u011flence end\u00fcstrisine de kap\u0131 aralayan bir \u00f6zelli\u011fe sahip olmas\u0131 dolay\u0131s\u0131yla Tayland ve \u00c7inden s\u00fcrekli \u2018turist\u2019 \u00e7ekiyor. Toplamda 2.5 milyar Dolar b\u00fct\u00e7eli projenin b\u00fct\u00fcn\u00fcyle tamamlanmas\u0131na daha zaman olmas\u0131na ra\u011fmen, ilk bitirilen b\u00f6l\u00fcm\u00fcn\u00fcn kumarhane olmas\u0131, Tayland ve \u00c7in\u2019de resmen yasak olan kumarhanelerin yerine Laos\u2019un \u2018cazibe merkezi se\u00e7ilmesi\u2019 \u00f6ng\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fcyor. Bu ak\u0131nda \u00c7inli yat\u0131r\u0131mc\u0131lar\u0131n buray\u0131 Macau\u2019ya d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcrme projelerinde Lao y\u00f6netiminden destek al\u0131yorlar. \u00c7in\u2019in yukar\u0131da bahsetti\u011fimiz olanaks\u0131zl\u0131klar\u0131 imk\u00e2na d\u00f6n\u00fc\u015ft\u00fcrme \u00e7abas\u0131n\u0131n bir di\u011fer g\u00f6stergesi ise bu e\u011flence sekt\u00f6r\u00fcyle ba\u011flant\u0131y\u0131 da sa\u011flayacak \u015fekilde \u00c7in-Laos-Tayland aras\u0131nda \u00f6nemli bir otoban in\u015faat\u0131 bulunuyor. Tabii bu s\u00fcrecin sosyo-k\u00fclt\u00fcrel boyutlar\u0131n\u0131n bir s\u00fcre sonra ortaya \u00e7\u0131kaca\u011f\u0131n\u0131 tahmin etmek g\u00fc\u00e7 de\u011fil. \u00d6rne\u011fin, yo\u011fun bir \u00c7in g\u00f6\u00e7men n\u00fcfusunun varl\u0131\u011f\u0131 Laolular aras\u0131nda pek de ho\u015f kar\u015f\u0131lanmayacakt\u0131r. Ya da tar\u0131m arazilerini ucuz fiyatlar kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131nda \u2018m\u00fcteahhitlere\u2019 satmaya zorlanan k\u00f6yl\u00fclerin ne t\u00fcr bir de\u011fi\u015fime konu olacaklar\u0131na yak\u0131nda tanik olaca\u011f\u0131z. S\u00f6z konusu bu kalk\u0131nma s\u00fcrecini destekleyenlerin arg\u00fcman\u0131 ise, 1960\u2019lar ve sonras\u0131nda \u2018afyon cenneti\u2019 olarak an\u0131lan b\u00f6lgenin bu \u2018k\u00f6t\u00fcn \u00fcn\u2019den kurtulaca\u011f\u0131 y\u00f6n\u00fcnde. Burada bir soru sorabiliriz herhalde. Acaba bu e\u011flence sekt\u00f6r\u00fcn\u00fcn ortaya \u00e7\u0131kmas\u0131nda fon \u2018afyondan\u2019 elde edilen gelir olmas\u0131n sak\u0131n?<\/div>\n
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Sahip oldu\u011fu do\u011fal kaynaklar\u0131na ra\u011fmen, ekonomik geli\u015fmi\u015flik s\u0131ralamas\u0131nda en alt s\u0131ralarda zikredilmektedir. Ekonomisinin kendine yeter \u00e7eltik tar\u0131m\u0131na dayanmakla birlikte, son y\u0131llarda b\u00f6lge \u00fclkeleri aras\u0131nda sosyo-k\u00fclt\u00fcrel de\u011fi\u015fimi en az ya\u015fayan toplum olmas\u0131yla \u00f6zellikle \u2018etnik k\u00fclt\u00fcrel yap\u0131n\u0131n\u2019 cazibe merkezi haline gelmesine ve dolay\u0131s\u0131yla Bat\u0131 \u00fclkelerinden \u00f6nemli bir turist ak\u0131n\u0131n ger\u00e7ekle\u015fmesine neden oluyor. Bununla birlikte, Bat\u0131 s\u0131n\u0131r\u0131ndaki Tayland\u2019la ili\u015fkilerin geli\u015ftirilmekte oldu\u011fu ve ekonomik etkile\u015fiminde \u00f6ncelikli \u00fclke olmaya aday oldu\u011funa ku\u015fku yok. Bunda Tay ve Lao dillerinin benzerli\u011fi, halklar\u0131 birbirine yakla\u015ft\u0131ran bir \u00f6zellik olarak ortaya \u00e7\u0131k\u0131yor. Ba\u015fkent Vientiane\u2019nin Thayland\u2019a s\u0131n\u0131r olmas\u0131n\u0131n da bunda \u00f6nemli rol\u00fc vard\u0131r. Bu durum, \u00f6rne\u011fin 19. y\u00fczy\u0131lda
\nSiam Krall\u0131\u011f\u0131 ile Laos krall\u0131klar\u0131 -belki buna prenslik demek daha do\u011fru olacak- aras\u0131ndaki koruyucu\/vassal devlet ili\u015fkisi dikkate al\u0131nd\u0131\u011f\u0131nda tarihsel bir devaml\u0131l\u0131k olarak da okunabilir. \u00d6te yandan, Tayland y\u00f6netim \u00e7evresinde Tay dil ve etnik unsurlar\u0131n\u0131 birle\u015ftirmeye y\u00f6nelik Pan-Tay ideolojisi taraftalar\u0131n\u0131n Laos\u2019la ili\u015fkileri ciddi bir \u015fekilde y\u00f6nlendirebileceklerini yabana atmamak laz\u0131m.<\/div>\n
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Tayland\u2019\u0131n bir yandan Amerikan, \u00f6te yandan Japonya\u2019n\u0131n \u00f6nemli yat\u0131r\u0131m alanlar\u0131 olmas\u0131 kadar, siyasi ittifaklar\u0131 da dikkate al\u0131nd\u0131\u011f\u0131nda Laos\u2019un d\u00fcnyaya a\u00e7\u0131lan kap\u0131s\u0131 konumunda oldu\u011funu ileri s\u00fcrebilir. Tam ba burada Tayland i\u00e7 politikas\u0131nda istikrars\u0131zl\u0131klar\u0131n, \u00f6zellikle ordunun siyaset ve ekonomi d\u00fcnyas\u0131ndaki m\u00fccadelesinden kaynaklanacak olumsuz etkileri unutulmamal\u0131. Di\u011fer \u00fclkeler gibi Laos\u2019un da 2015 ASEAN Ekonomik \u0130\u015fbirli\u011fi\u2019ne haz\u0131rlanmakta oldu\u011fu ve bu anlamda yasal haz\u0131rl\u0131klar\u0131n \u00fclkeyi b\u00f6lgeye a\u00e7acak imk\u00e2nlar haz\u0131rlamakta oldu\u011fu d\u00fc\u015f\u00fcn\u00fclebilir.<\/div>\n
<\/div>\n
Kaynaklar<\/b><\/div>\n
\u00a0<\/b><\/div>\n
Edo Andriesse. (2011). Laos: A State Coordinated Frontier Economy<\/i>, Working Paper, No. 522, International Institute of Social Studies, The Hague.<\/div>\n
<\/div>\n
Grant Evans. (2009). The Last Century of Lao Royalty: A Documentary History<\/i>, Chian Mai, Thailand: Silkworm Books.<\/div>\n
<\/div>\n
Interview with \u201cJames Chamberlain\u201d conducted by Grant Evans, Center For Lao Studies<\/i>, Vol 1, Issue. 1, 2010, San Francisco.<\/div>\n
Jonathan Rigg. (1997). Southeast Asia: The Human Landscape and Modernization and Development<\/i>, London: Routledge.<\/div>\n
<\/div>\n
Nattapong Thongpakde. (2001). ASEAN Free Trade Area: Progress and Challenges, In ASEAN Beyond the Regional Crisis: Challenges and Initiatives<\/i>, (ed.) Mya Than, Singapore: ISEAS<\/div>\n
<\/div>\n
Vatthana Pholsena. (2006). Post-War Laos: The Politics of Culture, History and Identity<\/i>, Singapore: ISEAS.<\/div>\n
<\/div>\n
Saly Khamsy&Pradap Pibulsonggram. (1991). Relations Between Laos and Thailand 1988, In Laos: Beyond the Revolution<\/i>, (ed.) Josehp J. Zasloff&Leonard Unger, London: Macmillan.<\/div>\n
<\/div>\n

http:\/\/media.dunyabulteni.net\/file\/2013\/laos.pdf<\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

Mehmet \u00d6zay \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 \u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0\u00a026 Temmuz 2013 \u00a0 Laos, one of the three countries in Indo-China, has a relatively small territory which does not have an access to seas. In this context, it makes this country unique among the other regional states. Owing […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[25],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-1247","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-laos"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/guneydoguasyacalismalari.com\/tr_tr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/1247","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/guneydoguasyacalismalari.com\/tr_tr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/guneydoguasyacalismalari.com\/tr_tr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/guneydoguasyacalismalari.com\/tr_tr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/guneydoguasyacalismalari.com\/tr_tr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=1247"}],"version-history":[{"count":1,"href":"https:\/\/guneydoguasyacalismalari.com\/tr_tr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/1247\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":1404,"href":"https:\/\/guneydoguasyacalismalari.com\/tr_tr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/1247\/revisions\/1404"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/guneydoguasyacalismalari.com\/tr_tr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=1247"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/guneydoguasyacalismalari.com\/tr_tr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=1247"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/guneydoguasyacalismalari.com\/tr_tr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=1247"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}