{"id":1045,"date":"2012-04-26T23:23:00","date_gmt":"2012-04-26T23:23:00","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/localhost:8080\/ini\/?p=328"},"modified":"2012-04-26T23:23:00","modified_gmt":"2012-04-26T23:23:00","slug":"cakarta-doguda-bir-somurge-baskenti","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/guneydoguasyacalismalari.com\/tr_tr\/cakarta-doguda-bir-somurge-baskenti\/","title":{"rendered":"Cakarta: Do\u011fu\u2019da Bir S\u00f6m\u00fcrge Ba\u015fkenti"},"content":{"rendered":"

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Mehmet \u00d6zay                                                                                  24 Nisan 2012<\/b><\/div>\n
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Bug\u00fcn Endonezya Cumhuriyeti\u2019nin ba\u015fkenti olan Cakarta, s\u00f6m\u00fcrgecilik tarihinin \u00f6nemli ba\u015fkentlerinden biri olmas\u0131yla dikkat \u00e7eker. G\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczde Mexico City, Rio de Jenaro, Kahire, Delhi gibi \u00fc\u00e7\u00fcnc\u00fc d\u00fcnya \u00fclkelerinin sorunlarla bo\u011fu\u015fan metropolleri aras\u0131nda yer alan Cakarta, \u00fclkenin modernle\u015fme s\u00fcre\u00e7lerinde ya\u015fad\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u015fehirle\u015fme problemlerini 21. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n ikinci on  y\u0131l\u0131na ta\u015f\u0131yor. Her ne kadar, son d\u00f6nemde \u015fehrin sorunlar\u0131n\u0131n \u00e7\u00f6z\u00fcm\u00fc konusunda en az\u0131ndan siyasi vaatler ortaya konmu\u015f olsa da, bunun kararl\u0131l\u0131kla uygulanmaya konulmas\u0131 zaman alacak. Cakarta, Endonezya Tak\u0131madalar\u0131\u2019n\u0131n ortas\u0131nda Sunda Denizi ile Do\u011fu Molukkas denizleri aras\u0131nda d\u00f6rd\u00fcnc\u00fc aday\u0131 te\u015fkil eder. Cava Adas\u0131\u2019n\u0131n ve dolay\u0131s\u0131yla, zamanla ekonomi ve ticaret merkezi olarak \u00f6ne \u00e7\u0131kan Cakarta\u2019n\u0131n n\u00fcfus yo\u011funlu\u011fu, Sumatra, Kalimantan gibi b\u00fcy\u00fck adalarla k\u0131yasland\u0131\u011f\u0131nda adan\u0131n \u00f6zellikle orta b\u00f6lgelerinde, baz\u0131lar\u0131n\u0131n g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczde de aktif oldu\u011fu yanarda\u011flar\u0131n y\u00fczy\u0131llar boyu s\u00fcren etkisiyle olu\u015fan verimli tar\u0131m arazilerinin varl\u0131\u011f\u0131na bor\u00e7ludur. Bu do\u011fal \u00f6zelli\u011finin yan\u0131 s\u0131ra, Cakarta\u2019n\u0131n geli\u015fiminde Hollanda s\u00f6m\u00fcrgecili\u011finin katk\u0131s\u0131 g\u00f6z ard\u0131 edilemez.<\/div>\n
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Hollanda Krall\u0131\u011f\u0131\u2019n\u0131n amac\u0131, Portekiz\u2019lilerin Hint Okyanusu maceras\u0131nda, Avrupa\u2019da kurduklar\u0131 tekel denmese de ticari g\u00fcc\u00fcn \u00f6n\u00fcne ge\u00e7mekti. Hollanda\u2019n\u0131n bu giri\u015fimindeki ciddiyetini ortaya koymas\u0131 bak\u0131m\u0131ndan a\u015fa\u011f\u0131da detaylar\u0131n\u0131 sunaca\u011f\u0131m\u0131z \u00fczere, devlet sermayesiyle bir denizcilik filosu kurmas\u0131 dikkat \u00e7ekicidir. Hollanda, Avrupa piyasas\u0131 i\u00e7in o d\u00f6nemler b\u00fcy\u00fck \u00f6nem arz eden biber ve baharatlar\u0131n ticaretinde -t\u0131pk\u0131 di\u011fer Avrupal\u0131 s\u00f6m\u00fcrgeci g\u00fc\u00e7ler gibi- tekel kurarak \u00f6nc\u00fc g\u00fc\u00e7 olmay\u0131 pl\u00e2nl\u0131yordu.[1]<\/a> <\/div>\n
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Malaka Bo\u011faz\u0131 \u00e7evresindeki baharat ticaretine hakim olma noktas\u0131nda A\u00e7e Dar\u00fcsselam Sultanl\u0131\u011f\u0131 ile b\u00f6lgedeki s\u00f6m\u00fcrgeci Portekizliler aras\u0131ndaki rekabet, bir di\u011fer Avrupal\u0131 g\u00fc\u00e7 olan Hollanda\u2019n\u0131n b\u00f6lgeye gelmesiyle daha da karma\u015f\u0131k ili\u015fkilerin do\u011fmas\u0131na yol a\u00e7t\u0131. Hollanda\u2019n\u0131n b\u00f6lgeye yeni bir akt\u00f6r olarak var olma arzusunun en temel nedenlerinden biri 16. y\u00fczy\u0131lda Avrupa\u2019ya ihra\u00e7 edilen biber miktar\u0131n\u0131n \u00fc\u00e7 kat artm\u0131\u015f olmas\u0131 ve bu ticarette yer alan t\u00fcccarlar\u0131n devletlerine \u00f6nemli gelirler sa\u011flamas\u0131yd\u0131. \u00d6te yandan, Avrupa\u2019daki siyasi geli\u015fmelerin de g\u00f6z ard\u0131 edilmeyecek etkisi vard\u0131r. \u00d6rne\u011fin, Hollanda\u2019n\u0131n 1594 y\u0131l\u0131nda Habsburg Hanedanl\u0131\u011f\u0131\u2019ndan ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131zl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 kazanmas\u0131 bunun en \u00f6nemli g\u00f6stergelerindendir.[2]<\/a>Hollanda Krall\u0131\u011f\u0131\u2019n\u0131n amac\u0131, G\u00fcneydo\u011fu Asya\u2019da, Portekizlilerin giremedikleri b\u00f6lgelere girmek suretiyle baharat ticaretinde yeni bir g\u00fc\u00e7 merkezi olarak ortaya \u00e7\u0131kmakt\u0131. Cava Adas\u0131\u2019nda Batavia\u2019y\u0131 \u00fcs olarak se\u00e7en Hollanda ile b\u00f6lgedeki yerli bir krall\u0131k olan Mataram Krall\u0131\u011f\u0131 aras\u0131ndaki m\u00fccadele e\u015fit g\u00fc\u00e7ler \u015feklinde devam ederken, Avrupa\u2019daki end\u00fcstri devrimi ile teknoloji g\u00fcc\u00fcn\u00fc ele alan Hollanda zamanla ba\u015far\u0131l\u0131 olarak hakimiyet alan\u0131n\u0131 geni\u015fletti.[3]<\/a><\/div>\n
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Hollandal\u0131lar\u0131n Batavia ad\u0131n\u0131 verdikleri, Cava Adas\u0131\u2019n\u0131n kuzey-bat\u0131s\u0131nda yer alan \u015fehrin kaderi, 20 Mart 1602 tarihinde 17\u2019ler Meclisi olarak da bilinen Hollanda\u2019n\u0131n \u00f6nde gelen deniz ticaret \u015firketlerinin ortakl\u0131\u011f\u0131nda do\u011fu denizlerinde ticaret tekelini ele ge\u00e7irmek amac\u0131yla kurulan Do\u011fu Hint \u015eirketi\u2019nin (VOC-Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie<\/i>) kal\u0131c\u0131 bir merkez arama s\u00fcrecinde de\u011fi\u015fecektir. [4]<\/a>S\u00f6z konusu \u015firket, Sumatra, Molukkas, Timor gibi zengin ticaret \u015fehirlerinin bulundu\u011fu co\u011frafyalardaki aray\u0131\u015flar\u0131na 1619 y\u0131l\u0131nda Cava Adas\u0131\u2019n\u0131n kuzeybat\u0131s\u0131nda yer alan ve bat\u0131s\u0131nda Sunda Bo\u011faz\u0131 ve Malaka Bo\u011faz\u0131, kuzeyinde \u00c7in Denizi do\u011fusunda Endonezya Tak\u0131madalar\u0131\u2019n\u0131n baharat zengini adalar\u0131na ula\u015f\u0131m\u0131 ile stratejik bir \u00f6neme sahip olan Jayakarta\u2019ya yerle\u015fmeye karar verdi.<\/div>\n
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\u00d6nceleri ad\u0131 Jayakarta olan bu liman kasabas\u0131n\u0131n, t\u0131pk\u0131 Malaka gibi, M\u00fcsl\u00fcmanlar\u0131n hakimiyetindeki di\u011fer \u00f6nemli liman \u015fehirlerinin s\u00f6m\u00fcrgeciler elinde benzer bir akibete u\u011frad\u0131\u011f\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fcr. Bu bir anlamda, b\u00f6lge \u0130slam Sultanl\u0131klar\u0131n\u0131n -A\u00e7e gibi baz\u0131 istisnalar hari\u00e7- s\u00f6m\u00fcrgecilik evresinin ba\u015flar\u0131nda maruz kald\u0131klar\u0131 -en az\u0131ndan maddi sebepler dikkate al\u0131nd\u0131\u011f\u0131nda- siyasi ve askeri yap\u0131lanmalar\u0131n\u0131n do\u011fal bir sonucuydu. Cava Adas\u0131\u2019n\u0131n \u00f6nemli \u0130slam Sultanl\u0131klar\u0131 aras\u0131nda zikredilen Banten Sultanl\u0131\u011f\u0131\u2019na ba\u011fl\u0131 bir M\u00fcsl\u00fcman valinin y\u00f6netimindeydi. Hollandal\u0131lar\u0131n liman \u015fehrine yerle\u015fme pl\u00e2nlar\u0131 \u00e7er\u00e7evesinde ya\u015fanan m\u00fccadele, 1619 y\u0131l\u0131 May\u0131s ay\u0131nda Jan Pieters Zoo Coen liderli\u011finde Avrupa\u2019dan gelen say\u0131ca az, ancak teknik donan\u0131m\u0131 y\u00fcksek donanma birli\u011fi Banten Sultanl\u0131\u011f\u0131\u2019na ba\u011fl\u0131 k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fck bir vasal y\u00f6netim olan Jayacarta<\/i>\u2019y\u0131 ele ge\u00e7irip saray\u0131 ve \u015fehir camiini yaklamalar\u0131 ile ba\u015flayan de\u011fi\u015fim s\u00fcreci \u015fehrin ad\u0131n\u0131n Batavia (bug\u00fcnk\u00fc Cakarta) olarak de\u011fi\u015ftirilmesiyle devam etti. B\u00f6ylece Hollanda do\u011fu denizlerindeki krall\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n merkezini b\u00f6ylece kurmu\u015f oldu. Batavya\u2019n\u0131n kurulmas\u0131yla Hollanda Do\u011fu Hint \u015eirketi Tak\u0131madalar\u2019da g\u00fc\u00e7l\u00fc bir konum elde etti. Batavia liman\u0131, dev ticaret gemileri i\u00e7in g\u00fcvenli bir liman oldu\u011fu kadar, zengin tar\u0131m arazilerinin bulundu\u011fu \u2018hinterlandda\u2019 da zamanla hakimiyet kurulmas\u0131 ile \u00f6nemi daha da artt\u0131.[5]<\/a> Batavia \u015fehri, G\u00fcneydo\u011fu Asya Hollanda s\u00f6m\u00fcrge imparatorlu\u011funun ba\u015fkenti olarak yakla\u015f\u0131k 350 y\u0131l boyunca y\u00f6netim merkezi olmay\u0131 s\u00fcrd\u00fcrd\u00fc. Bu s
\n\u00f6m\u00fcrge ba\u015fkenti, do\u011fu\u2019da Hollanda varl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131n yan\u0131 s\u0131ra, Hint Okyanusu\u2019nu \u00e7evreleyen co\u011frafyadaki \u0130slam ve Budist devletlerinin siyasi ve toplumsal varl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 da yak\u0131ndan ilgilelendiren t\u00fcm kararlar\u0131n al\u0131nd\u0131\u011f\u0131 bir \u015fehir olarak \u00f6nemli bir y\u00f6netim merkezi stas\u00fcs\u00fcndeydi.<\/div>\n
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\u015eehir 1811-1816, 1942-45 y\u0131llar\u0131 gibi k\u0131sa d\u00f6nemli istisnalar hari\u00e7 s\u00fcrekli Hollandal\u0131lar\u0131n hakimiyetinde kald\u0131\u011f\u0131 gibi, me\u015fhur kanallar\u0131, mimarisi gibi alt yap\u0131 \u00f6zellikleri ile do\u011fu\u2019da bir Hollanda \u015fehri olarak y\u00fckseldi. Bug\u00fcn \u015fehirde halen g\u00f6r\u00fclebilecek s\u00f6m\u00fcrge yap\u0131lar\u0131 aras\u0131nda eski Ar\u015fiv binas\u0131 t\u00fcm g\u00f6rkemi ile  gezenleri b\u00fcy\u00fclemeye devam ediyor. \u00d6te yandan, K\u0131ta Avrupas\u0131\u2019ndaki Hollanda\u2019n\u0131n kaplad\u0131\u011f\u0131 co\u011frafyan\u0131n kendine \u00f6zg\u00fc \u015fartlar\u0131n\u0131n bir sonucu olarak in\u015fa edilen kanallar, tropiklerin yo\u011fun ya\u011f\u0131\u015flara konu olan mevsimi dolay\u0131s\u0131yla Hollanda y\u00f6netimi eliyle Cakarta\u2019ya da ta\u015f\u0131nd\u0131. Her ne kadar g\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczde \u00f6nemli bir drenaj sorunu ve zaman zaman sel bask\u0131nlar\u0131na yol a\u00e7an bu dev kanallar ge\u00e7mi\u015fte \u00f6nemli i\u015flevler g\u00f6rm\u00fc\u015ft\u00fc. Hollandal\u0131lar\u0131n Cakarta\u2019daki hakimiyetleri, 17 A\u011fustos 1945 tarihinde Endonezya Cumhuriyeti\u2019nin ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131zl\u0131\u011f\u0131n\u0131 il\u00e2n\u0131na kadar s\u00fcrd\u00fc.<\/div>\n
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Yukar\u0131da k\u0131saca ifade edildi\u011fi \u00fczere, Hollandal\u0131lar Batavya\u2019dan ba\u015flayan hakimiyetlerini zamanla b\u00fct\u00fcn Cava Adas\u0131\u2019na yayma olana\u011f\u0131 buldular. Bu d\u00f6nemde Ada\u2019da y\u00f6netim olarak babadan o\u011fula ge\u00e7en h\u00fck\u00fcmdarl\u0131klarla yap\u0131lan anla\u015fmalarla Hollanda dolayl\u0131 y\u00f6netimi t\u00fcm adaya yaymaya ba\u015flad\u0131. B\u00f6ylece, zengin tar\u0131m \u00fcr\u00fcnleri Hollanda Do\u011fu Hint \u015eirketi alt\u0131nda faaliyet g\u00f6steren yerli h\u00fck\u00fcmdarl\u0131klar vas\u0131tas\u0131yla ba\u015fkente akmaya ba\u015flad\u0131. Hollandal\u0131lar\u0131n bu s\u00fcre\u00e7teki roller ise, y\u00f6netim ve ticari faaliyeti kontrolleri alt\u0131nda tutarak Avrupa b\u00fcrokrasisini b\u00f6lgeye ta\u015f\u0131mak \u015feklinde oldu. Yerli g\u00f6revlilere dan\u0131\u015fmanl\u0131k yapan ad\u0131na Resident<\/i>denilen genellikle de Hollandal\u0131lardan olu\u015fan  memurlar bulunuyordu. B\u00f6ylece erken d\u00f6nemlerden ba\u015flayarak Hollandal\u0131lar Dolayl\u0131 (indirect) bir y\u00f6netimi benimsemi\u015f oldular. Bu y\u00f6netim sistemi i\u00e7erisinde yerli liderler i\u00e7 i\u015fleri, Hollandal\u0131 memurlar da \u015firketin ticaretle ilgili i\u015flerini yerine getiriyordu. Kahve pl\u00e2ntasyonlar\u0131nda oldu\u011fu \u00fczere, Hollandal\u0131 g\u00f6revliler ayn\u0131 zamanda, birer kontrol\u00f6r olarak da g\u00f6rev yap\u0131yorlard\u0131.[6]<\/a><\/div>\n
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Hollanda\u2019n\u0131n Tak\u0131madalar\u2019da olu\u015fturdu\u011fu ticaret a\u011f\u0131, b\u00f6lgesel ve uluslararas\u0131 olmak \u00fczere iki a\u015famal\u0131d\u0131r. Baharat zengini Molukkas\u2019daki pl\u00e2ntasyonlar vas\u0131tas\u0131yla elde edilen \u00fcr\u00fcnler Cava Denizi vas\u0131tas\u0131yla Cava Adas\u0131\u2019n\u0131n Kuzey sahili boyunca uzanan limanlara, tabii ki \u00f6zellikle de Batavia liman\u0131na, oradan da Malaka Bo\u011faz\u0131 vas\u0131tas\u0131yla Malaka\u2019ya ve ard\u0131ndan Hindistan\u2019a ula\u015ft\u0131r\u0131l\u0131yordu. Bunun kar\u015f\u0131l\u0131\u011f\u0131nda Tak\u0131madalar\u2019da b\u00fcy\u00fck talep g\u00f6ren Bat\u0131 Hindistan sahillerinin \u00f6nemli tekstil \u00fcr\u00fcnleri Malaka ve Cava limanlar\u0131na ta\u015f\u0131n\u0131yor; Cava Adas\u0131\u2019n\u0131n bol pirinci Malaka Yar\u0131madas\u0131 ve Baharat Adalar\u0131\u2019na aktar\u0131l\u0131yordu. Bu b\u00f6lgesel ticaretin uluslararas\u0131 aya\u011f\u0131n\u0131 ise \u00e7e\u015fitli b\u00f6lgelerden toplanan biber ve baharat\u0131n \u00dcmit Burnu a\u015f\u0131larak Avrupa\u2019ya nakli te\u015fkil ediyordu.[7]<\/a><\/div>\n
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Pek \u00e7ok k\u0131ymetli meta\u0131n ta\u015f\u0131nmas\u0131na olanak tan\u0131yan bu uzun deniz yolculuklar\u0131n\u0131n ger\u00e7ekle\u015ftirilmesinde en \u00f6nemli unsur olan gemicilik sekt\u00f6r\u00fc, Avrupa\u2019da kendini kan\u0131tlam\u0131\u015f olan Hollanda liman \u015fehirlerindeki \u00fcretim hacminin giderek art\u0131r\u0131lmas\u0131na neden oldu. Bunun nihai bir souncu olarak Hollandal\u0131lar 1596 y\u0131l\u0131nda iki gemi ile ba\u015flad\u0131klar\u0131 do\u011fu denizlerindeki ticarette k\u0131sa s\u00fcrede dramatik bir ba\u015far\u0131 kazanarak d\u00f6nemin Avrupa uluslar\u0131 aras\u0131nda g\u0131pta ile an\u0131l\u0131r oldular. S\u00f6z konusu bu ba\u015far\u0131y\u0131 baz\u0131 rakamlarla ortaya koymakta fayda var. 1650\u2019de yani, 17. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n ilk yar\u0131s\u0131 doldu\u011funda do\u011frudan m\u00fcdahil olduklar\u0131 do\u011fu ticaretine ba\u015flamalar\u0131ndan itibaren ge\u00e7en yar\u0131m y\u00fczy\u0131ll\u0131k s\u00fcre zarf\u0131nda, bal\u0131k\u00e7\u0131 tekneleri ve i\u00e7 denizlerde faaliyet g\u00f6steren k\u00fc\u00e7\u00fcp \u00e7apl\u0131 tekneler hari\u00e7 olmak \u00fczere 2000 gemilik bir ticaret filosuna ula\u015ft\u0131lar. S\u00f6z konusu bu filo, altm\u0131\u015f ila seksen bin m\u00fcrettabata i\u015f olana\u011f\u0131 tan\u0131yordu. 1673 y\u0131l\u0131nda bir \u00e7at\u0131\u015fma sonunda esir d\u00fc\u015ferek Batavya\u2019da hapse at\u0131lan \u0130ngiliz Edward Barlow bu d\u00f6nemde do\u011fuda Hollanda Do\u011fu Hint \u015eirketi\u2019ne ait 150 ila 200 geminin yakla\u015f\u0131k otuz bin m\u00fcrettabatla faaliyet g\u00f6sterdi\u011fini belirtir. Ba\u015flan\u0131\u00e7ta kiralik gemilerle ticari faaliyetlere ba\u015flayan Do\u011fu Hint \u015eirketi, 1615 y\u0131l\u0131ndan itibaren alt\u0131 b\u00fcy\u00fck deniz ticaret odas\u0131 yani Amsterdam, Middelburg, Rotterdam, Delft, Hoorn ve Enkhuizen kendi gemilerini in\u015fa etmeye ba\u015flad\u0131.[8]<\/a><\/div>\n
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\u0130nsan kapasitesi, geli\u015fmi\u015f denizcilik teknolojisi ve ekonomik de\u011ferleri ile Do\u011fu ve G\u00fcneydo\u011fu Asya tarihinde yeri s\u00fcreklilik ta\u015f\u0131yan \u00c7in\u2019le ili\u015fkiler Hollanda Krall\u0131\u011f\u0131\u2019n\u0131n deniz ticaretinde ve de Batavia liman \u015fehrinin geli\u015fiminde ba\u015fat rol oynad\u0131\u011f\u0131 g\u00f6r\u00fcl\u00fcr. Batavya liman\u0131 \u00c7in\u2019den gelen ve \u015feker, porselen ve envai t\u00fcrde tekstil kargosu ta\u015f\u0131yan dev jung<\/i>lara da ev sahipli\u011fi yap\u0131yordu. Bu gemiler sayesinde Hollandal\u0131lar liman gelirleri ile ayr\u0131 bir gelir elde ettikleri gibi her seferinde \u00f6nemli say\u0131da \u00c7inli yerle\u015fimciyi ta\u015f\u0131yordu. Bu durum, Cava Adas\u0131\u2019nda \u00e7e\u015fitli \u00fcretim kademelerinde \u00e7al\u0131\u015ft\u0131racaklar\u0131 insan g\u00fcc\u00fcn\u00fc tedarik etmesi nedeniyle Hollandal\u0131lar\u0131n s\u00f6m\u00fcrgeci emelleri i\u00e7in bir avantaj sa\u011fl\u0131yordu.[9]<\/a><\/div>\n
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Hollandal\u0131lar\u0131n, G\u00fcneydo\u011fu Asya\u2019ya ayak basmalar\u0131ndan itibaren kar\u015f\u0131lar\u0131nda Avrupal\u0131 herhangi ger\u00e7ek bir rakip bulduklar\u0131n\u0131 s\u00f6ylemek g\u00fc\u00e7. Bu durum, Hollanda\u2019n\u0131n b\u00f6lgede giderek siyasi ve ekonomik g\u00fcc\u00fcn\u00fc art\u0131rmas\u0131n\u0131n temel nedeni olarak g\u00f6z\u00fckmektedir. \u00d6te yandan, Cava, Kalimantan, Molukkas\u2019da da Hollandal\u0131lara meydan okuyacak kapsaml\u0131 bir yerli direni\u015ften bahsetmek m\u00fcmk\u00fcn de\u011fil. Ta ki, 19. y\u00fczy\u0131lda s\u00f6m\u00fcrge topraklar\u0131n\u0131n de\u011fi\u015fik b\u00f6lgelerinde ortaya \u00e7\u0131kan ba\u011f\u0131ms\u0131zl\u0131k hareketlerine kadar.<\/div>\n
http:\/\/www.dunyabulteni.net\/index.php?aType=haber&ArticleID=207200&q=mehmet+%C3%B6zay<\/a><\/div>\n

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[1]<\/a>Anthony Reid, Southeast Asia in the Age of Commerce 1450-1680, Volume Two: The Lands below the Winds<\/i>, Yale University Press, 1988, s. 273; Horace St. John, The Indian Archipelago: Its History and Present State<\/i>, Cilt I, Longman, London, 1853, s. viii. <\/div>\n<\/div>\n
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[2]<\/a>Ira M. Lapidus, A History of Islamic Societies<\/i>, Cambridge University Press, 7th Edition, 1995, s. 471. <\/div>\n<\/div>\n
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[3]<\/a>Gilbert Khoo-Dorothy Lo, Asian Transformation -A History of Southeast, South and East Asia-<\/i> Heinemann Educational Books (Asia) Ltd. Singapore, 1977, s. 433-4.<\/div>\n<\/div>\n
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[4]<\/a>Jean Gelman Taylor, Indonesia: Peoples and Histories, Yale University Press, New Haven, 2003, s. 145; J. S. Furnivall, Netherlands India: A Study of Plural Economy<\/i>, s. 24; R. Ptak; D. Rothermund, \u201cRestrictive Trading Regimes: VOC and the Asian Spice Trade in the 17th Century\u201d, (Ed.), Om Prakash, Precious Metals and Commerce<\/i>, Variorum, 1994, s. 109; Ashin Das Gupta; M. N. Pearson, \u201cThe Dutch East India Company in the Trade of the Indian Ocean\u201d (Ed.), Om Prakash, Precious Metals and Commerce<\/i>, Variorum, 1994, s. 186.<\/div>\n<\/div>\n
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[5]<\/a>C. R. Boxer, \u201cThe Dutch East-Indiamen: Their Sailors, their Navigators, and Life on Board: 1602-1795\u201d, (Ed.), Dutch Merchants and Mariners in Asia: 1602-1795<\/i>, Variorum Reprints, London, 1988, s. 89; Jean Gelman Taylor, Indonesia: Peoples and Histories, Yale University Press, New Haven, 2003, s. 146. <\/div>\n<\/div>\n
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[6]<\/a>J. S. Furnivall, Colonial Policy and Practice: A Comparative Study of Burma and Netherlands India<\/i>, New York University Press, First United States Edition, 1956, s. 218-9; Arif Hizbullah Sualman, Muhammad Natsir (1908-1993): His Role in the Development of Islamic Da\u2019wah in Indonesia<\/i>, International Islamic University Malaysia, 1995, s. 112; Ensiklopedi Indonesia, s. 660-61.  <\/div>\n<\/div>\n
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[7]<\/a>David Joel Steinberg, \u201cThe Eighteenth Century World\u201d, (Ed.), In Search of Southeast Asia: A Modern History<\/i>, University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu, 1987, s. 56. <\/div>\n<\/div>\n
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[8]<\/a>C. R. Boxer, \u201cThe Dutch East-Indiamen: Their Sailors, their Navigators, and Life on Board: 1602-1795\u201d, 1988, s. 82-3. <\/div>\n<\/div>\n
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[9]<\/a>Ashin Das Gupta; M. N. Pearson, \u201cThe Dutch East India Company in the Trade of the Indian Ocean\u201d (Ed.), Om Prakash, Precious Metals and Commerce<\/i>, Variorum, 1994, s. 190. <\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

Mehmet \u00d6zay                                                                                  24 Nisan 2012 Bug\u00fcn Endonezya Cumhuriyeti\u2019nin ba\u015fkenti olan Cakarta, s\u00f6m\u00fcrgecilik tarihinin \u00f6nemli ba\u015fkentlerinden biri olmas\u0131yla dikkat \u00e7eker. G\u00fcn\u00fcm\u00fczde Mexico City, Rio de Jenaro, Kahire, Delhi gibi \u00fc\u00e7\u00fcnc\u00fc d\u00fcnya \u00fclkelerinin sorunlarla bo\u011fu\u015fan metropolleri aras\u0131nda yer alan Cakarta, \u00fclkenin modernle\u015fme s\u00fcre\u00e7lerinde ya\u015fad\u0131\u011f\u0131 \u015fehirle\u015fme problemlerini 21. y\u00fczy\u0131l\u0131n ikinci on  […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":931,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[21],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-1045","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-endonezya"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/guneydoguasyacalismalari.com\/tr_tr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/1045","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/guneydoguasyacalismalari.com\/tr_tr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/guneydoguasyacalismalari.com\/tr_tr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/guneydoguasyacalismalari.com\/tr_tr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/guneydoguasyacalismalari.com\/tr_tr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=1045"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/guneydoguasyacalismalari.com\/tr_tr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/1045\/revisions"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/guneydoguasyacalismalari.com\/tr_tr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media\/931"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/guneydoguasyacalismalari.com\/tr_tr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=1045"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/guneydoguasyacalismalari.com\/tr_tr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=1045"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/guneydoguasyacalismalari.com\/tr_tr\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=1045"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}